Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology Psychology is a relatively young science, but is part of a long tradition of systematic attempts to understand human nature dating back at least far as the philosophers of the classical period of ancient Greece. But psychology broke with philosophy in the late 19th century when it became a science grounded in the scientific method. Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology Application Module 1.4 Becoming a Critical Thinker

Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes What makes psychology a scientific discipline? What is meant by “behavior” and “mental processes”? 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Foundations of Modern Psychology Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Ancient Greek philosophers Greek roots Psyche – “mind” Logos – “study” or “knowledge” Ancient Greek philosophers Socrates (ca. 469-399 B.C.) Plato (ca. 428-348 B.C.) Aristotle (ca. 384-332 B.C.) Confucius (ca. 551-479 B.C.) 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

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Cornell University 1891 University of Toronto 1890 Clark University 1889 University of Wisconsin 1888 Harvard University 1892 Wellesley College 1891 Stanford University 1893 University of Iowa 1890 Yale University 1892 Brown University 1892 University of Michigan 1890 Columbia University 1890 University of Nebraska 1889 University of Chicago 1893 University of Pennsylvania 1887 Princeton University 1893 Trenton State College 1892 Indiana University 1887 Johns Hopkins University 1883 University of Illinois 1892 Randolf Macon Women’s College 1893 Catholic University 1891 University of Kansas 1889 Although psychology began in Europe, many research labs began to appear in North American colleges and universities. Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of modern psychology. Founded by students of Williams James Founded by students of G. Stanley Hall Founded by students of Wilhelm Wundt Founded by Others 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Wundt was the founder of structuralism, the early school of psychology that sought to break down mental experience into its component parts (sensations, perceptions, and feelings) In 1879, he founded what is considered to be the first psychology laboratory, which was located in Leipzig, Germany. He used the technique known as introspection to probe the perceptual processes of his experimental subjects. Edward Titchener, an Englishman who was a disciple of Wundt, brought Wundt’s teachings and methods of introspection to English-speaking countries. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

William James founded functionalism, the school of psychology that focused on how behavior is purposive in helping organisms adapt to demands placed upon them in the environment. Functionalists focus on why we do what we do. ©2011 Cengage Learning 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Max Wertheimer founded Gestalt Psychology, a school of psychology that studies the ways in which the brain organizes and structures our perceptions of the world. The whole is greater than the sum of the parts – as when all the dots on the next slide appear to form an arrow. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Gestalt maxim “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.” Is this a disconnected series of dots (the sensory impressions left on the retina) or an organized form--- an arrow (Gestalt principle of closure)? 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

John Watson, the founder of behaviorism, believed that only observable events can be studied scientifically. Behaviorists studied the effects of the environment on overt or observable behaviors of humans and other animals. John B. Watson 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Freud is world-famous as the developer of psychoanalytic theory, which was the first psychodynamic theory. His work helped to shape the field of clinical psychology. Sigmund Freud 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1 Behavioral 2 Psychodynamic 3 Humanistic 4 Physiological 5 Cognitive Psychology does not provide us with a unitary theory of behavior and mental processes. There are numerous viewpoints that compete and complement one another. These perspectives have grown from the work of early psychologists. Key questions of study for each of the six major contemporary perspectives in psychology today: 1. Behavioral: How do early learning experiences shape our behavior as adults? 2. Psychodynamic: How do unresolved conflicts from childhood affect adult behavior? How can people be helped to cope with these conflicts? 3. Humanistic: How do people pursue goals that give their lives a sense of meaning and purpose? 4. Physiological: How do biological structures and processes make behavior possible? What roles do nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) play in such areas as intelligence, language development, and aggression? 5. Cognitive: How do people solve problems, make decisions, and develop language? 6. Sociocultural: How do concepts of self differ across cultures? How do social and cultural influences shape behavior? 6 Sociocultural 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

John Watson B.F.Skinner Behaviorism was founded by the American psychologist John B. Watson. But it was B.F. Skinner who arguably became the most prominent proponent of behaviorism and perhaps the most influential psychologist to date. His work on operant conditioning revolutionized the behavioral movement. He extended his theoretical work to humans and most notably argued against the notion that we have free will. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Psychodynamic Perspective (1900 - Present) Carl Jung Alfred Adler Karen Horney Psychodynamic theorists study the unconscious determinants of behavior. They believe that unconscious motives as well as unresolved psychological conflicts from early childhood govern the development of personality and give rise to mental disorders. Sigmund Freud 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Humanistic Perspective (1950s - Present) Abraham Maslow Humanists believe that humans are free, rational beings with the potential for personal growth, which are fundamentally different from animals.   Humanists study the unique aspects of human experience. Carl Rogers 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Cognitive Perspective (1950s - Present) Key Areas of Study Thinking Processes Learning and Memory Problem Solving Language Development The cognitive perspective involves the study of thinking and other mental processes. Cognitive theorists believe that human behavior cannot be fully understood without examining how people acquire, process, and store information. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Physiological Perspective (1950s - Present) How do genes influence behavior? How does the brain work? How is behavior influenced by hormonal factors? What is the role of neurotransmitters in behavior? Psychologists who adopt a physiological perspective seek to understand the biological underpinnings of behavior. They study the physiological bases of behavior in humans and animals. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Evolutionary Psychology (1980s - Present) What role does evolution play in human behavior? Might behavioral patterns in modern humans reflect the struggle for survival of ancestral humans? Evolutionary psychology is an example of a contemporary physiological perspective on human behavior. Evolutionary theorists study the evolutionary bases of behavior in humans and animals.   They believe that behavior patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems, and that natural selection favors behaviors that enhance reproductive success. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Sociocultural Perspective (Mid-1900s to Present) What are the social and cultural influences on behavior? How does behavior vary in relation to factors such as income level, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation? 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Flagship Articles with Keywords (%) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Cognitive Approach Flagship Articles with Keywords (%) Behavioral Approach Psychoanalytic Approach The psychodynamic approach developed before behaviorism and behaviorism developed before cognitive psychology. This evidence provided on this graph suggests that the behavioral approach gave way in terms of quantity of published research several decades ago. The graph may not be so helpful when determining the impact of the psychodynamic approach in the field because adopters of this approach have been less involved in conducting scientific research. 1950 1956 1962 1968 1974 1980 1986 1992 1996 Year 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1920s Gestalt psychology nears its peak influence. 1980s Increased global interdependence and cultural diversity in Western societies spark surge of interest in how cultural factors mold behavior. 2000 Eric Kandel wins Nobel Prize (in physiology and medicine) for his research on the biochemistry of memory. 1890 William James publishes his seminal work, The Principles of Psychology. 1971 B. F. Skinner creates furor over radical behaviorism with his controversial book Beyond Freedom and Dignity. 1961 - 1964 Roger Sperry’s split-brain research and work by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel on how cortical cells respond to light help rejuvenate the biological perspective in psychology. 1881 Wilhelm Wundt establishes first journal devoted to research in psychology. 1941 - 1945 Rapid growth in clinical psychology begins in response to huge demand for clinical services created by World War II and its aftermath. Early 1990s Evolutionary psychology emerges as a major new theoretical perspective. 1951 Carl Rogers helps launch humanistic movement with publication of Client-Centered Therapy. 1904 Ivan Pavlov shows how conditioned responses are created, paving the way for Stimulus response psychology. 1913 John B. Watson writes classic behaviorism manifesto, arguing that psychology should study only observable behavior. 1933 Sigmund Freud’s influence continues to build as he publishes New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. 1875 First demonstration laboratories are set up independently by William James (at Harvard) and Wilhelm Wundt (at the University of Leipzig). 1947 Kenneth and Mamie Clark publish work on prejudice that is cited in landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation. 1981 Roger Sperry wins Nobel prize (in physiology and medicine) for split-brain studies. 1963 Stanley Milgram conducts controversial study of obedience to authority, which may be the most famous single study in psychology’s history. 1892 G. Stanley Hall founds American Psychological Association. 1883 G. Stanley Hall establishes America’s first research laboratory in psychology at Johns Hopkins University. 1953 B. F. Skinner publishes his influential Science and Human Behavior, advocating radical behaviorism similar to Watson’s. 1974 Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin publish their landmark review of research on gender differences, which galvanizes research in this area. 1990s The repressed memories controversy stimulates influential research by Elizabeth Loftus and others on the malleability and fallibility of human memory. 1905 Alfred Binet develops first successful intelligence test in France. 2002 Daniel Kahneman wins Nobel Prize (in economics) for his research on decision making. 1914 Leta Hollingworth publishes pioneering work on the psychology of women. 1908 Margaret Washburn publishes The Animal Mind, which serves as an impetus for behaviorism. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes first research laboratory in psychology at Leipzig, Germany. 1956 The cognitive revolution is launched at watershed conference where Herbert Simon, George Miller, and Noam Chomsky report three major advances in just one day. 1988 Research psychologists form American Psychological Society (APS) to serve as an advocate for the science of psychology. 1916 Lewis Terman publishes Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, which becomes the world’s foremost intelligence test. 1950 Erik Erikson writes Childhood and Society in which he extends Freud’s Theory of Development across the life span. 1954 Abraham Maslow’s Motivation and Personality helps fuel humanistic movement. 1978 Herbert Simon wins Nobel prize (in economics) for research on cognition. 1909 Sigmund Freud’s increasing influence receives formal recognition as G. Stanley Hall invites Freud to give lectures at Clark University. 1914 - 1918 Widespread intelligence testing is begun by military during World War I. Late 1990s Martin Seligman launches the positive psychology movement. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

APA Membership (thousands) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 APA Membership (thousands) APA membership has grown substantially since the end of World War II, a testament to its popularity. 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Year 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 10% Government agencies 9% Nonprofit organizations 6% Schools 40% For-profit/self-employment 35% Colleges, universities, medical schools The most common setting for psychologists is in private practice. These are obviously clinical or counseling psychologists. Hospitals and clinics are also a common setting for these psychologists.   The academic setting is also a common locale for psychologists. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 3.1% Developmental 2.2% Educational 4.0% School 1.6% Health 4.6% Industrial/Organizational 1.5% Experimental 1.1% Cognitive 11.3% Counseling 17.9% Other 52.7% Clinical Psychology has many subfields. Research is performed in each of them. Clinical psychologists are concerned with the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals with psychological disorders, as well as treatment of less severe behavioral and emotional problems. Counseling psychology overlaps with clinical psychology in that specialists in both areas engage in similar activities; however, counseling psychologists usually work with a somewhat different clientele, providing assistance to people struggling with everyday problems of moderate severity. Educational psychologists work to improve curriculum design, achievement testing, teacher training, and other aspects of the educational process. Industrial and organizational psychologists perform a wide variety of tasks in the world of business and industry. Emerging specialties include neuropsychology, geropsychology, forsenic psychology, and sport psychology. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Margaret Floy Washburn Mary Whiton Calkins founded an early psychology laboratory at Wellesley College and was the first woman president of the APA   Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn a Ph. D in psychology and authored an influential book, “The Animal Mind.” Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Floy Washburn 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Kenneth and Mamie Phipps-Clark Gilbert Haven Jones (1883–1966): First African American to receive a doctorate in psychology, from a university in Germany.   Francis Sumner (1895–1954) (not pictured): First African American to receive a doctorate in psychology in the United States. Kenneth Clark (1914-2005): First African American president of APA. Shown here with his wife Mamie Phipps-Clark Their research on self-esteem of African American children were cited in the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas (1954) which held that separate schools were inherently unequal Gilbert Haven Jones Kenneth and Mamie Phipps-Clark 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.0% American Indian 4.0% Asian and Pacific Islander 4.6% African American 11.3% Hispanic (Latino) 85.0% White (non-Hispanic) Despite increased representation of people of color in professional psychology in recent years, the ethnic composition of the field remains predominant (non-Hispanic) White. Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource Statistics, Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, 1992-2001, NSF, 04318, Project Officers Susan T. Hill, and Jean M. Johnson (Arlington, VA), April 2004. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

80 70 60 50 Percentage of women 40 30 20 10 The gender shift in psychology has been dramatic over the past several decades. Women now represent nearly three-fourths of new doctoral recipients in psychology, as compared to but one-fifth in 1970. 1970 2005 Source: Cynkar, 2007 Year 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Research Methods in Psychology Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Anxiety Researchers must measure the phenomenon under study.   For example, in studying the effectiveness of muscle relaxation techniques in reducing anxiety, a psychologist must first develop a means of measuring anxiety. What are the different ways investigators might measure anxiety? Examples include subjective ratings, physiological measures, and behavioral measures. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

How Affects Psychologists form hypotheses about how variables interact. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables. Variables are factors that are observed or controlled in a study.   The purpose of an experiment is to find out how one variable, let’s call it X, affects another variable, which we’ll call Y. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

School Information gathered by scientists may be of some practical value in helping to solve problems in schools, businesses, mental health centers, etc. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1 2 4 3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Developing a Research Question Forming a Hypothesis 2 Drawing on theory, observations, experiences, or common beliefs to formulate a researchable question Reframing the question so that it becomes a specific prediction that can be tested through research Drawing Conclusions 4 Gathering Evidence 3 The scientific method is a general framework that scientists apply to test predictions, assumptions, beliefs, and claims in the light of evidence. There are four general steps in the scientific method, as represented here. Using statistical methods of analysis to determine whether the data support the hypothesis Testing the hypothesis 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Hypothesis: Students who study over a span of 3 weeks before a test perform better than those who wait until the night before Data Collection Report Findings Method Analysis Hypothesis: Students who study over a span of 3 weeks before a test perform better than those who wait until the night before. Method: Give questionnaire to students on when they study. Data Collection: collect questionnaires and test scores. Analysis: correlate questionnaire results with test scores. Report the findings: Students who studied over a multiple week period performed better on tests than those who crammed the night before Limitation: This study employs a correlational design. Experimenters performed a statistical test of the association between grades and study patterns. They did not control or manipulate the independent variable (study patterns) by assigning students at random to one or the other study method (cramming vs. regular studying). Thus, they cannot conclude that study method causally influenced grades. Perhaps it did, or perhaps there was a selection factor ---the better students were more likely to adopt a regular study method. Although it is limited, correlational research can point to possible causal influences in cases in which it is difficult to directly control or manipulate the independent variable(s). 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Detailed case histories are completed for youngsters referred to counseling because of excessive aggressive behavior in school. The children are interviewed, as are their parents and teachers. A case study is an in-depth and generally subjective or impressionistic report on a single individual that may be based on interviews, psychological testing, and so on. It can provide a rich source of information but is limited as a scientific investigation.   Limitations Possible problems if rely on people’s memories of past experiences People may withhold important information Interviewer biases or expectations may influence people’s reports or recollections 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Naturalistic observation is when a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects. This method allows researchers to study behavior under conditions that are less artificial than experiments.   It can be particularly useful for studying animals in their natural habitats. Limitations include potential observer biases and possible unintended consequences (interfering with natural habitat). 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Surveys use questionnaires or interviews to find out about specific aspects of people’s backgrounds, attitudes or opinions. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Nonrepresentative Sample Population Nonrepresentative Sample While descriptive and correlational methods extend the scope of psychological research, they do not permit scientists to manipulate variables, and therefore a cause and effect relationship cannot be demonstrated. Drawing inferences about a population based on a sample only works if the sample is representative of the population. Haphazard or convenience samples are often nonrepresentative. For example, we would not want to make judgments about the average length of sleep per night of the general population by drawing a sample from people who frequent coffee bars late at night. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

We already saw how a nonrepresentative sample of the population can lead to inaccuracy. This is called a sampling bias.. Another bias is the social desirability bias, which leads people to answer questions about themselves in a way that fits in with society’s expectations. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

The advantages of Internet research include larger populations, reduced time and money, and a broader reach into sampling populations.   A drawback of Internet-based research is that typically very few of the solicited subjects participate, which means that those who do might be a distinctive (nonrepresentative) group, indicating a sampling bias. In addition, Internet studies lack aspects of control found in conventional studies (participants may be distracted or intoxicated, for example). 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Benefits of correlational research: 1) Offers clues to underlying causes. 2) Can identify groups of people at high risk for physical or behavioral problems. 3) Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Negative Correlation Positive Correlation High Moderate Low Low Moderate High -1.00 -.90 -.80 -.70 -.60 -.50 -.40 -.30 -.20 -.10 .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00 The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.   The size of the correlation coefficient varies between zero and plus or minus one. It is the size of the correlational coefficient that indicates the strength of the association between two variables. The sign (positive or negative) indicates the direction of correlation. Strength of Relationship Increasing Increasing 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Blood Pressure Reading Positive Correlation High scores on X are associated with high scores on Y, and low scores on X are associated with low scores on Y. # of Cigarettes Smoked X Blood Pressure Reading Y A positive correlation occurs when two or more variables vary in the same pattern.   An example would be number of cigarettes smoked and blood pressure reading. A positive correlation occurs when two or more variables covary in the same direction. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Amount of caffeine Ingested Negative Correlation High scores on X are associated with low scores on Y, and low scores on X are associated with high scores on Y. X Y A negative correlation occurs when two or more variables show patterns of variation directly opposite to one another. An example would be amount of caffeine ingested and number of hours slept in the last 24 hours. Amount of caffeine Ingested # of Hours Slept 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Performance of Students 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Successful Students Unsuccessful Students Performance of Students This graphic shows an example of strong positive correlation between classroom attendance and grade performance. Always or Almost Always in Class Sometimes Absent Often Absent 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Here is an example of a regular study pattern that is planned in advance.   Time management is crucial to success in college. Many students today work while they attend college and need to balance their work and school responsibilities. Do you think that study habits are correlated (statistically associated) with grades? How? Do you believe there is a causal relationship between the two variables? Why or why not? How might you determine if a causal relationship exists? To address causal relationships, we turn to the use of the experimental method in which the investigator directly controls (manipulates) the hypothesized causal variable of interest. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships Independent variables: Manipulated variables Dependent variables: Measured variables Investigators use the experimental method to determine whether there is a causal relationship between the independent (manipulated) variable(s) and the dependent variable(s) (outcome or measured variable or variables). 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Independent Variable Dependent Variable Experimental Group Control Group Extraneous Variables In the experimental method, the investigators manipulates an independent variable(s) and observe the effects on a dependent variable(s) under controlled conditions.   The independent variable is a condition or event manipulated by experimenter. The dependent variable is an aspect of behavior thought to be affected by the independent variable. The experimental group consists of participants who receive special treatment. The control group consists of similar subjects who do not receive treatment given to experimental group Extraneous variables are factors besides independent variables that might affect the dependent variables, and need to be controlled. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Participants Independent Variable: Control Group Random Assignment Independent Variable: Control Group Independent Variable: Experimental group Here we see a schematic of the experimental method. Measure dependent variable Is there a significant difference between the two groups? 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Absence of Pain = Dependent Variable Experimental Group Control Group Independent Variable No Treatment An example of experimental research would be the testing of morphine for effectiveness using analgesia - the absence of pain - as the dependent variable.   The control group allows the researcher to isolate the effects of the independent variable. Because the two groups are alike in every way except for the variation of the independent variable, any difference between the groups can be attributed to the independent variable. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Which one is the dependent variable? A physiologist sets out to determine whether the caloric content of food (high-calorie versus low-calorie) is a determinant of the amount eaten by rats who have been subjected to 48 hours of food deprivation. Which one of these is the dependent variable?   Click to see answer. The amount eaten by the rats is the dependent variable. The caloric content is food is the independent variable determining the amount eaten by the rats. Amount eaten by rats 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Sometimes, a single group can be used for both experimental and control conditions. For example, you might study the effects of having the radio on when people work on an assembly line. You’d collect data from the same group of workers twice, once with the radio on and once with it off. You would need to randomize the order of radio on/radio off to control for ordering effects. These types of experimental designs are called repeated measures designs since you take repeated measures of the same variable(s) with the same participants. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Independent Variable #1 Independent Variable #2 Researchers can also manipulate more than one IV to see what the combined effect is. Sometimes, the effect of one variable depends on the effect of another. For example, you might find that having the radio on increases productivity in workers, but only in the morning. In this example, time of day interacts with the effects of the radio. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Worker Satisfaction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Dependent Variable #1 Researchers can also use more than one dependent variable in a single study to get a more complete picture of the effect of the independent variable. For example, we might measure not only number of pieces workers finish when the radio is allowed to be on while they work, but also worker satisfaction, absenteeism, and attitudes. Having 1 day less a month absenteeism might make up for a slight decrease in productivity. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Experiments may not reflect behavior in real-life settings Ethical Concerns Practical Realities The power of the experimental method lies in the ability to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships from an experiment. No other research method has this power.   Experimental research does, however, have limitations. Experiments are often artificial; researchers have to come up with contrived settings so that they have control over the environment. Some experiments cannot be done because of ethical concerns. For example, you would never want to malnourish infants on purpose to see what the effects are on intelligence. Others cannot be done because of practical issues. For example, there’s no way we can randomly assign families to live in urban vs. rural areas so we can determine the effects of city vs. country living. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

When individuals are given a medication or are in a treatment condition in an experiment, their expectations about the treatment may produce a placebo effect. Placebo effects are especially likely to occur when subjects expect that the treatment is linked to a change in behavior or reaction. Single-blind and double-blind procedures are used to control for placebo effects.   For example, if people are told they are drinking an alcoholic beverage, but are given a virgin margarita instead, they may begin acting intoxicated because of a placebo (expectancy) effect. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 Williams, L.E. & Bargh, J.A. (2008). Author’s names: Last name followed by initials Date of publication Title of Article Williams, L.E. & Bargh, J.A. (2008). Experiencing physical warmth promotes Interpersonal warmth. Science, 322, 606-607. doi: 10.1126/science.1162548 Name of journal in italics Journal volume number in italics Pages in journal where article appears Digital Object Identifier 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

E.g., when deception can be used Ethics review committees Code of ethics E.g., when deception can be used Ethics review committees Important ethical requirements Informed consent Confidentiality Ethical guidelines for animal research 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Becoming a Critical Thinker Application Module 1.4 Becoming a Critical Thinker 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Avoid oversimplifying Avoid overgeneralizing Question everything Clarify what you mean Avoid oversimplifying Avoid overgeneralizing Don’t confuse correlation with causation 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based Examine sources of claims Question the evidence upon which claims are based Consider alternative ways of explaining claims 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

Don’t suspend your skeptical attitude when online! Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4