Chapter One Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-2 Did You Know That… One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school? A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind? The school of psychology originated by Sigmund Freud holds that we are generally unaware of our underlying motives?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-3 Did You Know That… (Cont’d) A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train? A student successfully completed all PhD requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman? You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and much of it is free of charge)?

Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-5 Module 1.1 Preview Questions What is psychology? What are the origins of psychology? What are the major early schools of psychology? What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-6 What Is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes What makes psychology scientific? Evidence is valued over opinion and tradition. What is meant by “behavior”? Anything an organism does What are “mental processes”? Our private experiences

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-7 Origins of Psychology The word psychology is derived from two Greek roots: Psyche, meaning “mind” Logos, meaning “study” or “knowledge” Psychological inquiries can be traced back to Ancient Greece. Remained largely of interest to philosophers, theologians, and writers for several thousand years

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-8 Founding of Psychology as an Independent Science Usually credited to the German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt ( ) Established the first scientific laboratory dedicated to study of psychology in 1879 Marked transition of psychology from philosophy to science

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1-9 Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline (Cont’d)

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Wundt, Titchner, and Structuralism Wundt was interested in studying people’s mental experiences. Used method called introspection Edward Titchner ( ) brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to US. Wundt and Titchner are identified with school of psychology known as structuralism.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved William James and Functionalism William James ( ) founded the school of psychology known as functionalism. Focused on the roles or functions that underlie mental processes Why we do what we do

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved John Watson and Behaviorism Watson ( ) founded the school of psychology known as behaviorism. Psychology should be a science of behavior only. Believed that environment molds behavior By 1920s, behaviorism became dominant force in American psychology.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved B. F. Skinner ( ) Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology Wertheimer ( ) was fascinated by the illusion of movement by objects in the distance. Founded Gestalt psychology How does the brain organize and structure our perceptions of the world?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.2: What Is This? Gestalt maxim: “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Sigmund Freud ( ) and Psychoanalysis An Austrian physician Founded view of psychology called the psychodynamic perspective Focused on the unconscious mind Emphasized importance of early childhood experiences Led to form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Contemporary Psychology Behavioral Perspective Social-cognitive theory Behavioral therapy Psychodynamic Perspective Humanistic Perspective “Third Force” in psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Contemporary Psychology (Cont’d) Physiological Perspective Evolutionary psychology Cognitive Perspective Sociocultural Perspective

Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Module 1.2 Preview Questions What are the various specialties in psychology? What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Types of Psychological Research Basic Research: Focuses on acquiring knowledge, even if no practical application Applied Research: Focuses on finding solutions to specific problems

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.3: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Current Major Field of APA Membership by Membership Status 2002, Updated April 2004.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.4: Where Psychologists Work Source: American Psychological Association, Employment Settings for PhD Psychologists: 2001, APA Research Office. July 2003.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Major Specialty Areas Experimental Comparative Physiological Clinical Counseling School Educational Developmental Personality Social Environmental Industrial/ Organizational Health Consumer

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Emerging Specialty Areas Neuropsychology Clinical neuropsychology Geropsychology Forensic psychology Sports psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse Women pioneers Christine Ladd-Franklin ( ) Mary Whiton Calkins ( ) Margaret Floy Washburn ( ) African American pioneers Gilbert Haven Jones ( ) Francis Sumner ( ) J. Henry Alston Kenneth Clark

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.5: Ethnicity of PhD Psychologists Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resource Statistics, Science and Engineering Degrees, by Race/Ethnicity of Recipients, , NSF, 04318, Project Officers Susan T. Hill, and Jean M. Johnson (Arlington, VA), April 2004.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.6: Women PhD Recipients in Psychology Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office, Demographic Shifts in Psychology, September 2003.

Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Module 1.3 Preview Questions What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps? What are the major research methods psychologists use? What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.7: General Steps in the Scientific Method

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Case Study Method In-depth study of one or more individuals Information drawn from interviews, observation, or written records Problems with case studies: Limitations of memory Withholding of important information Concerns over making favorable impressions

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Survey Method Information gathered from target groups of people through the use of: Structured interviews Questionnaires Importance of random sampling Problems: Limitations of memory Social desirability bias Volunteer bias

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Naturalistic Observation Direct observation of behavior in natural environment Problems: May behave differently when aware being observed Potential observer biases

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Correlational Method Used to examine the relationship between two variables Correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of association Can range from to Positive vs. negative correlation coefficients Limitation: Correlation is not causation!

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Benefits of the Correlational Method Offers clues to underlying causes Can identify groups at high risk for physical or behavioral problems Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Experimental Method Allows for investigation of cause-and- effect relationships Independent Variables: Factors that are manipulated in an experiment Dependent Variables: Outcome variables believed to be dependent on the independent variable

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Experimental Method (Cont’d) Participants Independent variable: control group Independent variable: experimental group Random Assignment Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Experimental Method (Cont’d) Controlling for placebo effects Controlling for expectancy effects Single-blind and double-blind procedures

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Anatomy of a Research Study: To Shoot or Not to Shoot? Study Hypothesis What they predicted would occur Procedure What they did and how they did it The experimental design Results and Discussion What they found and what it means Results of the study References Continue

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Experimental Design in Police Officer’s Dilemma Game Race of Target Object African American White Gun No Gun Return

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.8: Reaction Times in Police Officer’s Dilemma Study Source: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Figure 1.9: Fateful Decisions: The Role of Stereotyping Return Source: Adapted from Corel et al, 2002.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Ethical Principles in Psychological Research Purpose of code of ethics is to respect the dignity and welfare of clients and research participants. Role of ethics review committees Role of informed consent Use of deceptive practices Importance of confidentiality Ethical guidelines for animal research

Application: Module 1.4 Becoming a Critical Thinker

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Module 1.4 Preview Question What are the key features of critical thinking?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved What Is Critical Thinking? The adoption of a questioning attitude Careful weighing of evidence Thoughtful analysis of others’ claims and arguments Requires a willingness to challenge conventional wisdom and common knowledge

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Features of Critical Thinking Question everything. Clarify what you mean. Avoid oversimplifying. Avoid overgeneralizing. Don’t confuse correlation with causation.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Features of Critical Thinking (Cont’d) Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based. Examine sources of claims. Question the evidence upon which claims are based. Consider alternative ways of explaining claims.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved Thinking Critically About Online Information Don’t suspend skeptical attitude when online! Ask questions such as: Who is posting the material? Is the source a well-respected institution or one with no apparent credentials and perhaps an ax to grind? Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources.