Motifs in Modern Biographies of Muhammad 1.Revelation vs. reason 2. Muhammad’s sinlessness 3. The mi‘raj - physical or spiritual/ psychological? 4. Miracles 5. Muhammad’s activities from the modern point of view

Egyptian. Studied law in Cairo and Paris Worked as lawyer, educator, journalist, novelist and government minister Main concern in writing was promoting rationality of Islam and rejecting Orientalist criticisms of faith. Sought to demonstrate that Islam compatible with modern life and instrumental in its development Muhammad Husayn Haykal ( )

Did not critique sources for biography but instead selected sources that suited agenda and removed anything saw as superstitious or contrary to modern reason Rejected religious conservatism Saw Qur’an as original, rational source of wisdom, social order and individual liberty, perverted by later scholars for own reasons Muhammad Husayn Haykal ( )

Hayat Muhammad (Life of Muhammad) published 1935 Seeks to be reasoned, scientific account Does not assess Muhammad’s career, and seeks to counter Orientalist criticisms by focusing on Muhammad’s trustworthiness, sinlessness and democratic nature of early community. Minimises violence and explains miracles. Mi‘raj as psychological Muhammad Husayn Haykal ( )

Najib Mahfuz (Naguib Mahfouz, ) Egyptian novelist, won Nobel Prize for Literature in 1988 Critiques traditional religions, saying that in modern world God has ceased to be relevant as humans do not seek to include Him in lives e.g. in Awlad Haratina (Children of Gabalawi), allegory of God, prophets and interaction with world, set in Cairo

Najib Mahfuz (Naguib Mahfouz, ) Muhammad figure (Qasim/Kassem) challenges secular and religious powers. With band of followers, seeks to establish by force world respecting human rights and law of God. Embodies worthy values including ability to love women Eventually science (‘Arafa) supplants prophets as everyone’s leader, and God (Gabalawi) dies, though people do not realise

Najib Mahfuz (Naguib Mahfouz, ) Children of Gabalawi caused storm of protest when published as series in al-Ahram in Not published as book until 1967, when published in Beirut. Only published as book in Egypt in 2006 In response to novel, Islamist extremist attempted to kill Mahfouz in 1994 by stabbing him in neck

Views of Sunna/Hadith authoritative vs. questionable preserving faith vs. impeding evolution Indian scholars of the issue: Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan ( ) Ghulam Ahmad Parvez ( ) Abu’l-A‘la Mawdudi ( )

Anti-traditionalist, saw hadith as product of early Muslim scholars Advocated re-evaluation of law with limited use of hadith and primacy placed on Qur’an Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan ( )

Regarded Qur’an as only reliable source of law Questioned reliability of companions of Muhammad and even Muhammad himself as transmitters of legal wisdom Urged readers to use only Qur’an as source of law Ghulam Ahmad Parvez ( )

Advocated loyalty to God above all Saw Muhammad as exemplifying interpretation of Qur’an; therefore, people should make full use of hadith while exercising common sense and critical judgment Saw Parvez and his ilk as claiming prophethood Abu’l-A‘la Mawdudi ( )