5.3 Light Light How are the wavelength and frequency of light related?

The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from zero to the crest. 5.3 Light The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from zero to the crest. The wavelength, represented by  (the Greek letter lambda), is the distance between the crests.

The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from zero to the crest. 5.3 Light The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from zero to the crest. The wavelength, represented by  (the Greek letter lambda), is the distance between the crests.

The SI unit of cycles per second is called a hertz (Hz). 5.3 Light The frequency, represented by  (the Greek letter nu), is the number of wave cycles to pass a given point per unit of time. The SI unit of cycles per second is called a hertz (Hz).

The SI unit of cycles per second is called a hertz (Hz). 5.3 Light The frequency, represented by  (the Greek letter nu), is the number of wave cycles to pass a given point per unit of time. The SI unit of cycles per second is called a hertz (Hz).

5.3 Light The wavelength and frequency of light are inversely proportional to each other. The frequency and wavelength of light waves are inversely related. As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases.

5.3 Light The product of the frequency and wavelength always equals a constant (c), the speed of light.

According to the wave model, light consists of electromagnetic waves. 5.3 Light According to the wave model, light consists of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. All electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum at a speed of 2.998  108 m/s.

The Development of Atomic Models 5.1 The Development of Atomic Models The Development of Atomic Models

The Development of Atomic Models 5.1 The Development of Atomic Models Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain the chemical properties of elements. Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain why objects change color when heated. Rutherford’s model fails to explain why objects change color when heated. As the temperature of this horseshoe is increased, it first appears black, then red, then yellow, and then white. The observed behavior could be explained only if the atoms in the iron gave off light in specific amounts of energy. A better atomic model was needed to explain this observation.

The Development of Atomic Models 5.1 The Development of Atomic Models The timeline shoes the development of atomic models from 1803 to 1911. These illustrations show how the atomic model has changed as scientists learned more about the atom’s structure.

5.1 The Bohr Model The Bohr Model What was the new proposal in the Bohr model of the atom?

5.1 The Bohr Model Bohr proposed that an electron is found only in specific circular paths, or orbits, around the nucleus.

Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s model has a fixed energy. 5.1 The Bohr Model Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s model has a fixed energy. The fixed energies an electron can have are called energy levels. A quantum of energy is the amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level to another energy level.

5.1 The Bohr Model Like the rungs of the strange ladder, the energy levels in an atom are not equally spaced. The higher the energy level occupied by an electron, the less energy it takes to move from that energy level to the next higher energy level. These ladder steps are somewhat like energy levels. In an ordinary ladder, the rungs are equally spaced. The energy levels in atoms are unequally spaced, like the rungs in this ladder. The higher energy levels are closer together.

The Development of Atomic Models 5.1 The Development of Atomic Models The timeline shows the development of atomic models from 1913 to 1932. These illustrations show how the atomic model has changed as scientists learned more about the atom’s structure.

5.3 Atomic Spectra Atomic Spectra What causes atomic emission spectra?

5.3 Atomic Spectra When atoms absorb energy, electrons move into higher energy levels. These electrons then lose energy by emitting light when they return to lower energy levels.

Physics and the Quantum Mechanical Model 5.3 Physics and the Quantum Mechanical Model Neon advertising signs are formed from glass tubes bent in various shapes. An electric current passing through the gas in each glass tube makes the gas glow with its own characteristic color. You will learn why each gas glows with a specific color of light.

5.3 Atomic Spectra A prism separates light into the colors it contains. When white light passes through a prism, it produces a rainbow of colors. A prism separates light into the colors it contains. For white light this produces a rainbow of colors.

5.3 Atomic Spectra When light from a helium lamp passes through a prism, discrete lines are produced. A prism separates light into the colors it contains. Light from a helium lamp produces discrete lines. Identifying Which color has the highest frequency?

5.3 Atomic Spectra The frequencies of light emitted by an element separate into discrete lines to give the atomic emission spectrum of the element. Mercury Nitrogen No two elements have the same emission spectrum. a) Mercury vapor lamps produce a blue glow. b) Nitrogen gas gives off a yellowish-orange light.

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra 5.3 An Explanation of Atomic Spectra An Explanation of Atomic Spectra How are the frequencies of light an atom emits related to changes of electron energies?

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra 5.3 An Explanation of Atomic Spectra In the Bohr model, the lone electron in the hydrogen atom can have only certain specific energies. When the electron has its lowest possible energy, the atom is in its ground state. Excitation of the electron by absorbing energy raises the atom from the ground state to an excited state. A quantum of energy in the form of light is emitted when the electron drops back to a lower energy level.

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra 5.3 An Explanation of Atomic Spectra The light emitted by an electron moving from a higher to a lower energy level has a frequency directly proportional to the energy change of the electron.

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra 5.3 An Explanation of Atomic Spectra The three groups of lines in the hydrogen spectrum correspond to the transition of electrons from higher energy levels to lower energy levels. The three groups of lines in the hydrogen spectrum correspond to the transition of electrons from higher energy levels to lower energy levels. The Lyman series corresponds to the transition to the n  1 energy level. The Balmer series corresponds to the transition to the n  2 energy level. The Paschen series corresponds to the transition to the n  3 energy level.

An Explanation of Atomic Spectra Animation 6 Learn about atomic emission spectra and how neon lights work.

5.3 Quantum Mechanics Quantum Mechanics How does quantum mechanics differ from classical mechanics?

The quanta behave as if they were particles. 5.3 Quantum Mechanics In 1905, Albert Einstein successfully explained experimental data by proposing that light could be described as quanta of energy. The quanta behave as if they were particles. Light quanta are called photons. In 1924, De Broglie developed an equation that predicts that all moving objects have wavelike behavior.

5.3 Quantum Mechanics Today, the wavelike properties of beams of electrons are useful in magnifying objects. The electrons in an electron microscope have much smaller wavelengths than visible light. This allows a much clearer enlarged image of a very small object, such as this mite. An electron microscope can produce sharp images of a very small object, such as this mite, because of the small wavelength of a moving electron compared with that of light.

Quantum Mechanics Simulation 4 Simulate the photoelectric effect. Observe the results as a function of radiation frequency and intensity.

5.3 Quantum Mechanics Classical mechanics adequately describes the motions of bodies much larger than atoms, while quantum mechanics describes the motions of subatomic particles and atoms as waves.

5.3 Quantum Mechanics The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time. This limitation is critical in dealing with small particles such as electrons. This limitation does not matter for ordinary- sized object such as cars or airplanes.

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 5.3 Quantum Mechanics The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time.

The Quantum Mechanical Model 5.1 The Quantum Mechanical Model The Quantum Mechanical Model What does the quantum mechanical model determine about the electrons in an atom?

The Quantum Mechanical Model 5.1 The Quantum Mechanical Model The quantum mechanical model determines the allowed energies an electron can have and how likely it is to find the electron in various locations around the nucleus.

The Quantum Mechanical Model 5.1 The Quantum Mechanical Model Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887– 1961) used new theoretical calculations and results to devise and solve a mathematical equation describing the behavior of the electron in a hydrogen atom. The modern description of the electrons in atoms, the quantum mechanical model, comes from the mathematical solutions to the Schrödinger equation.

The Quantum Mechanical Model 5.1 The Quantum Mechanical Model The propeller blade has the same probability of being anywhere in the blurry region, but you cannot tell its location at any instant. The electron cloud of an atom can be compared to a spinning airplane propeller. The electron cloud of an atom is compared here to photographs of a spinning airplane propeller. a) The airplane propeller is somewhere in the blurry region it produces in this picture, but the picture does not tell you its exact position at any instant. b) Similarly, the electron cloud of an atom represents the locations where an electron is likely to be found.

The Quantum Mechanical Model 5.1 The Quantum Mechanical Model In the quantum mechanical model, the probability of finding an electron within a certain volume of space surrounding the nucleus can be represented as a fuzzy cloud. The cloud is more dense where the probability of finding the electron is high. The electron cloud of an atom is compared here to photographs of a spinning airplane propeller. a) The airplane propeller is somewhere in the blurry region it produces in this picture, but the picture does not tell you its exact position at any instant. b) Similarly, the electron cloud of an atom represents the locations where an electron is likely to be found.

Atomic Orbitals How do sublevels of principal energy levels differ? 5.1 Atomic Orbitals Atomic Orbitals How do sublevels of principal energy levels differ?

5.1 Atomic Orbitals An atomic orbital is often thought of as a region of space in which there is a high probability of finding an electron. Each energy sublevel corresponds to an orbital of a different shape, which describes where the electron is likely to be found.

5.1 Atomic Orbitals Different atomic orbitals are denoted by letters. The s orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped. The electron clouds for the s orbital and the p orbitals are shown here.

5.1 Atomic Orbitals Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but different orientations in space. The d orbitals are illustrated here. Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but different orientations in space. Interpreting Diagrams How are the orientations of the dxy and dx2 – y2 orbitals similar? How are they different?

The Development of Atomic Models 5.1 The Development of Atomic Models The timeline shows the development of atomic models from 1913 to 1932. These illustrations show how the atomic model has changed as scientists learned more about the atom’s structure.

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