The art and study of using language effectively Letitia Hughes AP Language Barren County High School

 Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”  Rhetoric is “the art of communicating ideas”

Rhetoric may be described as “persuasive use of language” and rhetorical strategies are techniques by which writers persuade readers. Anything a writer does is a rhetorical strategy— any choice at all.

 The art and practice of rhetoric dates to the Greeks—to Aristotle in particular.  Essentially, rhetoric addresses the relationship/conversation among audience, purpose, and speaker/writer. Speaker or writer audience subject

 The speaker/writer adopts a persona, which is not a negative term, but rather refers to the role he or she deems most effective for purpose and audience.  Audience, purpose, and persona affect the appeals that the speaker/writer uses. Speaker or writer (Ethos) Audience (Pathos) Subject (Logos)

 A writer’s primary responsibility in a text is to appeal to logos—to the audience’s inherent need for a meaningful, purposeful, and effective text. In appealing to logos, writers establish and support their  character and credibility (appeal to ethos) and  invigorate the audience’s emotions and interests (appeal to pathos)  Note the language the author uses to appeal to pathos, ethos, and logos.

 Ethos (Ethical Appeal)  Appeal to character  Emphasizes shared values between the speaker and the audience  Purpose: demonstrates speaker is credible and trustworthy  Speaker’s ethos include expertise and knowledge, experience, training, sincerity, etc.

 Logos (Logical Appeal)  Appeal to reason (“logos”=“embodied thought” [Greek])  Emphasizes main idea using specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, expert testimony, etc.  Purpose: supporting point(s) on the basis of logic  Sophisticated appeals will acknowledge a counterargument and either concede or refute the opposing argument

 Pathos (Emotional Appeal)  Appeal to emotion  Purpose: engage the emotions of the audience  Usually include vivid, concrete description, figurative language, and visual elements  Appeals to pathos are rarely effective in the long term. Why? It’s usually… Propaganda- a negative term for writing designed to sway opinion rather than present information Polemic- an argument against an idea, usually regarding philosophy, politics, or religion

o The rhetor does not necessarily make these appeals in separate sections of a text. o A single sentence can appeal to logos, the audience's interest in a clear cogent idea; ethos, the audience's belief in the credibility and good character of the writer; and pathos, the audience's emotions or interests in regard to the topic at hand.

Remember to address ethos, logos, pathos as appeals! Say… ethical appeal instead of ethos emotional appeal instead of pathos logical appeal instead of logos

 Who is the Speaker?  What is the Occasion?  Who is the Audience?  What is the Purpose?  What is the Subject?  What is the Tone?

 Speaker: the individual or collective voice of the text  Occasion: the event or catalyst causing the writing of the text to occur  Audience: the group of readers to whom the piece is directed  Purpose: the reason behind the text  Subject: the general topic and/or main idea  Tone: the attitude of the author

 Consider what you would say to a classmate who could not attend the prep session today, write down one or two major points you would use to explain the rhetorical triangle.  How would you compare this to SOAPSTONE?

 Writers always write in response to a rhetorical situation—a convergence of time, place, and circumstances that leads them to make decisions about who their audience is, what purpose their text might accomplish, and what genre it would be most appropriate for them to produce.

 All of these goals and appeals—everything writers do to identify an audience, accomplish a purpose, create an appropriate genre, embody a reasonable and convincing set of ideas, establish their character and credibility, and enliven the audience’s emotions and interests—all of this work is accomplished simultaneously by choosing to write or speak the words, phrases, and sentences, and by creating textual structures that are appropriate and effective for the rhetorical situation at hand.

 Narration  Telling a story or recounting a series of events  Narrating for a purpose  Process Analysis  Explaining how something works, how to do something, or how something was done

 Description  Providing sensory details; describing by emphasizing the senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, feeling o Closely allied with narration because it provides specific details. However, description emphasizes the senses.

 Exemplification  Providing a series of examples-- facts, specific cases, or instances– to turn a general idea into a concrete one Induction=a type of logical proof in which a series of specific examples lead to a general conclusion (triangle) Deduction= a generalization relating many pieces of information is used to draw a conclusion about a specific piece (inverted triangle)  Types of Exemplification: (1) Multiple examples (many examples) (2) Extended examples (one example examined in depth)

 Comparison and Contrast  Juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and differences  Types of Comparison and Contrast: (1) Subject-by-subject: writer discusses all elements of one subject, then turns to another (2) Point-by-point: writer organizes analysis around specific points of a discussion

 Classification and Division  Sorting materials or ideas into major categories  Answering the question, “What goes together and why?”  Sometimes categories are ready-made, sometimes writers must develop their own

 Definition  Defining a term crucial to an idea or argument  Often the first step in a debate or disagreement  May take only one sentence or paragraph, although sometimes it is the purpose of an entire essay

 Cause and Effect  Analyzing the causes that lead to a certain effect or, conversely, the effects that result from a cause  Depends on crystal clear logic  Often signaled by a “why” in the title or opening paragraph (Ex: “I Know Why the Caged Bird Cannot Sing” by Francine Prose)

 Style is the way someone writes as opposed to what he/she writes. It results from things like word choice/ diction, tone, use of figurative language, imagery, detail and allusions, and syntax.  Even something as simple as a grocery list can show an author’s writing style

 Consider the following:  (1) Context and purpose  (2) Interaction between the subject, speaker, and audience (Aristotelian triangle)  (3) Persuasive appeals (Ethos, Logos, Pathos)  (4) Rhetorical Mode (pattern of development)  (5) Style (rhetorical devices-tone, sentence structure/syntax, diction/vocabulary, use of detail and figurative language, allusions, etc.)

 Think about the big umbrella of Rhetoric  Focus on the EFFECT… SO WHAT????? Theme Tone Purpose

Thesis Framework: In (title of work ), (author/persona/speaker) uses (rhetorical devices, mode, appeals, etc) to (action verb - show, reveal, explore, portray, convey, emphasize, suggest, etc.) (direct object - theme, tone, purpose). Tip: This is only to get started until you are confident enough to develop a thesis on your own. Think of the framework as training wheels on your AP Language bike.

 Now take your thesis and make each rhetorical strategy you selected (preferably two or three) be a section of your essay.  Make a claim about the strategy and its effect on something under the big umbrella  Carefully select data from the passage that supports your claim.  Offer warrant/commentary/insight on how the data illuminates the claim you are making about the effect on the area you chose from the big umbrella.

Rhetorical Analysis

 Read and annotate the 2003 Form B AP Language Rhetorical Strategies Question  John Downe’s letter to his wife  As you annotate look for the things we have discussed… like SoapsTONE, shift, appeals, diction, etc.  Afterwards, we will share our findings and look at some sample essays that earned upper level scores on the AP scale.

 Every piece, regardless of the mode used, will contain either a SHIFT or a CONTRAST.  To accurately analyze the rhetoric, you have to find the shift or contrast.

 A shift is a change in the author’s tone (attitude).  A change or shift in tone is often signaled by the following:  Transitions (e.g., but, yet, nevertheless, however, although) Note: Transitions may serve to… Provide alternative Add Compare Contrast Show result Summarize Emphasize Provide an example Intensify Show time  Punctuation  Stanza and Paragraph divisions  Changes in line and stanza or sentence length

 Contrasts usually boil down to… THE ROMANTICSvs.THE REALISTS - the ideal world- how it really is - the perfect world- the seedy, gritty, mechanized - the beautiful- the ugly - the true- falsehood - the pure- the exploited - the innocent- the experienced - the pastoral- the urban