Chapter 03 Lecture Outline* Rod R. Seeley Idaho State University Trent D. Stephens Idaho State University Philip Tate Phoenix College *See PowerPoint Image Slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Chapter 3 Cell Biology and Genetics

Basic Structure of the Cell Plasma membrane Cytoplasm containing organelles Nucleus

Functions of the Cell Cell metabolism and energy use Synthesis of molecules Communication. Cells produce and receive electrical and chemical signals Reproduction and Inheritance. Each cell contains DNA. Some cells are specialized to gametes for exchange during sexual intercourse

Plasma Membrane Separation of intracellular vs. extracellular materials Production of charge difference (membrane potential) across the membrane by regulation of intracellular and extracellular ion concentrations Outside of membrane positively charged compared to inside because of gathering ions along outside and inside Glycocalyx: combinations of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glycoproteins) on outer surface. Fluid-mosaic model

Membrane Lipids Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads facing water in the interior and exterior of the cell (hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each other on the interior of the membrane (hydrophobic) Cholesterol: interspersed among phospholipids. Amount determines fluid nature of the membrane Fluid nature provides/allows Distribution of molecules within the membrane Phospholipids automatically reassembled if membrane is damaged Membranes can fuse with each other

Membrane Proteins Integral or intrinsic Extend deeply into membrane, often extending from one surface to the other Can form channels through the membrane Peripheral or extrinsic Attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer Functioning depends on 3-D shape and chemical characteristics. Markers, attachment sites, channels, receptors, enzymes, or carriers.

Marker Molecules: Glycoproteins and Glycolipids Allow cells to identify one another or other molecules Immunity Recognition of oocyte by sperm cell Intercellular communication

Attachment Proteins Cadherins – attach cells to other cells Integrins – integral proteins that attach to extracellular molecule Sometimes allow communication due to contact with intracellular molecules

Transport Proteins Hydrophilic region faces inward; charge determines molecules that can pass through Includes channel proteins, carrier proteins, and ATP-powered pumps.

Channel Proteins Nongated ion channels: always open Responsible for the permeability of the plasma membrane to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest Gated ion channels can be opened or closed by certain stimuli Ligand gated ion channel: open in response to small molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins Voltage-gated ion channel: open when there is a change in charge across the plasma membrane

Carrier Proteins Also called transporters Integral proteins move ions from one side of membrane to the other Have specific binding sites Protein changes shape to transport ions or molecules Resumes original shape after transport

Carrier Proteins (cont.) Carrier proteins come in several forms Uniporters – moves one particle Symporters – move two particles in the same direction at the same time Antiporters – move two particles in opposite directions at the same time

ATP-Powered Transport Requires ATP. The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate substances Rate of transport depends on concentration of substrate and on concentration of ATP

Receptor Proteins Proteins or glycoproteins in membranes with an exposed receptor site Can attach to specific chemical signal molecules and act as an intercellular communication system Ligand can attach only to cells with that specific receptor

Receptors Linked to Channel Proteins Receptor molecules linked to channel proteins Attachment of receptor-specific chemical signals (e.g., acetylcholine) to receptors causes change in shape of channel protein Channel opens or closes Changes permeability of cell to some substances Cystic fibrosis: defect in genes causes defect(s) in channel proteins Drugs used to alter membrane permeability through attachment to channel protein-linked receptors

Receptors Linked to G Protein Complexes Alter activity on inner surface of plasma membrane Leads to intracellular chemical signals that affect cell function Some hormones function in this way

Enzymes in the Plasma Membrane Enzymes: some act to catalyze reactions at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane. Surface cells of small intestine produce enzymes that digest dipeptides

Summary of Membrane Proteins

Movement through the Plasma Membrane Diffusion Osmosis Filtration Mediated Transport Facilitated diffusion Active transport Secondary active transport

Diffusion Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration in solution Concentration or density gradient: difference between two points Viscosity: how easily a liquid flows

Osmosis Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from an area of low concentration of solute to an area of high concentration of solute Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis

Osmosis Comparative terms used to describe osmotic pressures of solutions Isosmotic: solutions with the same concentrations of solute particles Solution with a greater concentration of solute is hyperosmotic Solution with a lesser concentration of solute is hyposmotic

Osmosis and Cells Important because large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function Cell shrinkage or swelling Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation) Hypotonic: cell swells (lysis)

Filtration Works like a sieve Depends on pressure difference on either side of a partition Moves from side of greater pressure to lower Example: urine formation in the kidneys. Water and small molecules move through the membrane while large molecules remain in the blood

Mediated Transport Involve carrier proteins or channels in the cell membrane Characteristics Specificity for a single type of molecule Competition among molecules of similar shape Saturation: rate of transport limited to number of available carrier proteins

Saturation of a Carrier Protein When the concentration of x molecules outside the cell is low, the transport rate is low because it is limited by the number of molecules available to be transported. When more molecules are present outside the cell, as long as enough carrier proteins are available, more molecules can be transported; thus, the transport rate increases. The transport rate is limited by the number of carrier proteins and the rate at which each carrier protein can transport solutes. When the number of molecules outside the cell is so large that the carrier proteins are all occupied, the system is saturated and the transport rate cannot increase.

Mediated Transport – Facilitated Diffusion Facilitated diffusion: carrier- or channel-mediated. Passive. Move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across the plasma membrane. Amino acids and glucose in, manufactured proteins out.

Mediated Transport – Active Transport ATP-Powered Transport Requires ATP. The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate substances Rate of transport depends on concentration of substrate and on concentration of ATP Example: Na+/K+ exchange pump that creates electrical potentials across membranes

Mediated Transport – Secondary Active Transport Ions or molecules move in same (symport) or different (antiport) direction. Is the movement of glucose a symporter example or an antiporter example? This example shows cotransport of Na+ and glucose. A sodium-potassium exchange pump maintains a concentration of Na that is higher outside the cell than inside. Active transport. Na moves back into the cell by a carrier protein that also moves glucose. The concentration gradient for Na provides the energy required to move glucose against its concentration gradient.

Endocytosis Internalization of substances by formation of a vesicle Types Phagocytosis (shown) Pinocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Pinocytosis and Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Exocytosis Accumulated vesicle secretions expelled from cell Examples Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas Secretion of mucous by salivary glands Secretion of milk by mammary glands

Cytoplasm Cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma membrane Composed of Cytosol, Cytoskeleton, Cytoplasmic Inclusions, Organelles Cytosol: fluid portion. Dissolved molecules (ions in water) and colloid (proteins in water)

Cytoskeleton Supports the cell but has to allow for movements like changes in cell shape and movements of cilia Microtubules: hollow, made of tubulin. Internal scaffold, transport, cell division Microfilaments: actin. Structure, support for microvilli, contractility, movement Intermediate filaments: mechanical strength Cytoplasmic inclusions: aggregates of chemicals such as lipid droplets, melanin

Organelles Small specialized structures with particular functions Most have membranes that separate interior of organelles from cytoplasm Related to specific structure and function of the cell

Nucleus Membrane-bound Nucleoplasm, nucleolus and nuclear envelope Much of the DNA in a cell located here

Chromosome Structure Chromatin: DNA complexed with proteins (histones) During cell division, chromatin condenses into pairs of chromatids called chromosomes. Each pair of chromatids is joined by a centromere

Ribosomes Sites of protein synthesis Composed of a large and a small subunit Types Free Attached (to endoplasmic reticulum)

Endoplasmic Reticulum Types Rough Has attached ribosomes Proteins produced and modified here Smooth No attached ribosomes Manufactures lipids Cisternae: Interior spaces isolated from rest of cytoplasm

Golgi Apparatus Modification, packaging, distribution of proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use Flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other

Function of Golgi Apparatus

Action of Lysosomes

Peroxisomes and Proteasomes Smaller than lysosomes Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and amino acids Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of breakdown Proteasomes Consist of large protein complexes Include several enzymes that break down and recycle proteins in cell

Mitochondria Major site of ATP synthesis Membranes Cristae: Infoldings of inner membrane Matrix: Substance located in space formed by inner membrane Mitochondria increase in number when cell energy requirements increase. Mitochondria contain DNA that codes for some of the proteins needed for mitochondria production.

Centrioles and Spindle Fibers Located in centrosome: specialized zone near nucleus Center of microtubule formation Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends of cell and organize spindle fibers

Cilia Appendages projecting from cell surfaces Capable of movement Moves materials over the cell surface

Flagella Similar to cilia but longer Usually only one per cell Move the cell itself in wave-like fashion Example: sperm cell

Microvilli Extension of plasma membrane Increase the cell surface area Normally many on each cell One tenth to one twentieth size of cilia Do not move

Genes and Gene Expression Functional unit of heredity Types Structural: serve as template for mRNA, code for amino acid sequences Regulatory: control which structural genes transcribed in given tissue

Genes and Gene Expression Transcription: DNA used to form RNA Translation: synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

Transcription The strands of DNA are separated RNA polymerase binds at a promoter region RNA polymerase catalyses the formation of a mRNA chain using the DNA as a template and following the rules of complimentary base pairing A with U C with G Transcription ends at a terminator sequence

Posttranscription Processing The mRNA is modified after transcription and before it can leave the nucleus Intron removal Guanosine cap added Poly-A tail added The mRNA now contains the genetic code that will be used to manufacture a polypeptide

Translation Process that occurs on ribosomes Turns mRNA into a polypeptide Involves rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA tRNA anticodons match with mRNA codons, and the rRNA catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the amino acids at the opposite end of the tRNA

Regulation of Protein Synthesis All nucleated cells except germ cells have the full complement of DNA. During development, differentiation occurs and some segments of DNA are turned off in some cells while those segments remain “on” in other cells. During the lifetime of a cell, the rate of protein synthesis varies depending upon chemical signals that reach the cell. Example: thyroxine from the thyroid causes cells to increase their metabolic rate. More thyroxine, higher metabolic rate; less thyroxine, lower metabolic rate.

Cell Life Cycle Interphase: phase between cell divisions Replication of DNA Ongoing normal cell activities Mitosis: series of events that leads to the production of two cells by division of a mother cell into two daughter cells. Cells are genetically identical. Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis: division of cell cytoplasm

Replication of DNA DNA strands separate The old strands become the templates for the new (complementary) strands to form Two identical DNA molecules are formed by semiconservative replication

Mitosis Interphase – DNA replication occurs Mitosis Prophase – nuclear envelope disintegrates, chromatin condenses, spindles attach to kinetochore Metaphase – chromosomes are aligned at the nuclear equator Anaphase – spindles separate the chromatids, cytokinesis begins Telophase – chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis continues Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division, separate process from mitosis

Genetics Study of heredity Explains how certain characteristics are passed on to offspring

Mendalian Genetics Genotype: actual set of alleles a person has for a given trait Phenotype: person’s appearance Dominant and recessive alleles Dominant masks effects of recessive genes Sex-linked traits: traits affected by genes on sex chromosomes

Mendalian Genetics Homozygous: Having two of the same alleles for a trait. Homozygous dominant: AA Homozygous recessive: aa Heterozygous: Having one dominant and one recessive allele for a trait Aa

Chromosomes Genetics: study of heredity DNA: hereditary material of cells and controls cell activities Found in discrete sections called chromosomes Karyotype or display Autosomal and sex (X or Y) Contain thousands of genes Diploid: two copies of chromosomes Haploid: one copy of chromosomes, only in gametes Karyotype: map of chromosomes

Inheritance of Sex

Chromosomes Homologous: pairs of chromosome where one is from the father and the other is from the mother Locus: the location of a gene on a chromosome Allele: different forms of the same gene Multiple alleles – sometimes alleles come in more than just dominant and recessive forms

Gene Dominance Complete dominance: the dominant allele covers up the recessive allele and is the only allele expressed Codominance: both alleles are expressed equally at the same time Incomplete dominance: the dominant allele and the recessive allele both are expressed, with the recessive being at a much lower level

Other Types of Gene Expression Polygenic traits Determined by expression of multiple genes on different chromosomes Height, eye and skin color, intelligence

Sex-linked Traits Affected by areas of the X and Y chromosome X-linked traits more often affect males Y-linked traits only affect males

Meiosis and the Transmission of Genes Meiosis: DNA replication followed by two cell divisions Homologous pairs are separated Resulting gametes (egg, sperm) unite to form a zygote Homologous pairs are reunited New pairs are a mixture of DNA from two individuals

Genetic Disorders Cancer: tumor resulting from uncontrolled cell divisions Oncogenes: genes associated with cancer Tumor suppressor genes Carcinogens Genetic susceptibility or predisposition Genetic disorders: abnormalities in DNA Congenital disorders Birth defects not necessarily genetic Teratogens: agents that cause birth defects Mutation Mutagens: agents that cause mutations