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Assignment Chapter 7 Life History + Evolution Bring outline to class!

This lecture: parts of Ch : Population: Evolutionary Unit Darwin’s finches… Population Ecology GeneticsEvolution

The hierarchical nature and processes of different levels of ecological systems: now we focus on the population…

Objectives Understand (micro)evolution and its relation to genetics Sources of genetic variation Forces causing evolution: (change in gene frequency in population) Natural selection Small population size Assortative mating Gene flow Forces causing populations to: Differentiate Homogenize

*** A ‘pre-test’ on phenotypic variation, genetic variation, natural selection, fitness, evolution, adaptation (pre-adapt) Cyanide experienced by an insect population Cyan-resistant individuals Non-Cyan- resistant TIME Use these words to explain evolution of cyanide resistance.

What is definition of (micro)evolution? Change in allele frequency in a population through time… What must be present for natural selection to cause evolutionary change? Genetic (allele) variation What is the ultimate source of genetic variation? Mutation, a change in nucleotide in DNA ---> change in amino acid it specifies ---> change in phenotype of organism

Genetic variation is also produced by chromosome recombination during 1)meiosis and by 2) fertilization.

Does this slide show phenotypic or genotypic variation? What underlies different patterns of coloration (different phenotypes) in the population?

***Why is genetic variation important? In changing environments, the reservoir of (neutral) genetic variation may take on positive survival value.

***Are most mutations beneficial? Are most mutations dominant? What happens to harmful mutations? Most mutations are harmful and recessive; natural selection weeds out most deleterious alleles, leaving those that best suit organisms to their environments. Some mutations are neutral. They may become beneficial when the relationship of the organism to its environment changes; organism is pre-adapted to change. Selection for beneficial mutations is the basis for evolutionary change, enabling organisms to exploit new environmental conditions.

***What forces can cause change in genotype frequency (= cause evolution)? 1) Natural selection --> differentiates subpopulations 2) Effects of small population size a) Genetic drift b) Founder effect c) Population bottlenecks 3) Assortative (non-random) mating 4) Gene flow (= dispersal/migration) --> homogenizes subpopulations

Summary of forces Remove genetic variation: Natural selection Small population size Inbreeding Maintain genetic variation: Mutation Outbreeding Gene flow Varying selective pressures in time and space

What accounts for changes in beak size?

El Nina year El Nino year What effect does an El Nina year have on number and hardness of finch seeds?

Evolution by natural selection… Finch beak size increases in response to increase in seed hardness in drought years.

Natural selection: change in the frequency of traits in a population because of differential survival and reproduction of individuals with those traits. Individuals with the most offspring are selected and the proportion of their genes increases over time. Fitness: the genetic contribution by an individual to future generations. Relative fitness: Maximum = 1 = most fit

Types of natural selection:

Predict which morph increases in frequency with: heavy coal use (soot on bark?) light coal use? What type of selection occurs?

Genetic drift: 5 of 10 plants 2 of 10 plants leave offspring Generation 1Generation 2Generation 3p p =.7, q =.3 p =.5, q =.5 p = 1.0, q = 0 Change in allele frequency due to random variation in births and deaths.

Population Bottleneck: period of small pop. size. Then …subject to genetic drift Reduced variation

Population bottlenecks often result in reduced or no genetic variation (e.g. cheetahs).

Small populations experience founder events, population bottlenecks and genetic drift. Each causes a loss in genetic variation. Allele becomes fixed = no variation. + genetic drift

***Summarize the results. What is the potential consequence for small populations? Population size % polymorphic genes

Assortative mating: when individuals choose mates non-randomly with respect to their own genotypes. Negative: mates differ genetically --> increases proportion of heterozygotes Most individuals do this to avoid inbreeding. Positive: like mating with like (includes inbreeding) --> increases proportion of homozygotes

Positive assortment increases the proportion of homozygotes unmasks deleterious recessive alleles --> inbreeding depression (decrease in fitness)

% homozygosity depends on level of inbreeding.

Gene flow (migration)--> mixes alleles between subpopulations and homogenizes them. Maintains genetic variation ***What represents gene flow in animals? plants? Animals: dispersal of the adult or larval animal or gametes Plants: dispersal of pollen and seeds

Genetic structure (differentiation) of populations is determined by ecological factors, e.g. heavy metals from mines causing natural selection (foreground).

Sample exam question: In the previous picture the plants in the foreground are tolerant of heavy metals; those in the background are not. Use the 7 words “to define on the lecture outline” to write a scenario whereby the original plant population got subdivided into two - as the one in the foreground evolved tolerance to heavy metals.

What was necessary in the population before mining for zinc tolerance to evolve? Why explains the increase in selfing in the mine subpopulation?

***Sample exam question. A species of scale insects extracts fluids from branches of pine trees. They have very limited movement. In an experiment, these insects were transplanted 1) between branches of the same pine tree, and 2) from one pine tree to another pine tree of the same size.

1.State the hypothesis/prediction that was being tested as an “If…then…” 2.Summarize the results in one concise sentence. 3.Do the results support the hypothesis? 4.Predict whether gene flow or natural selection would be a more powerful force affecting the genetic structure of this insect. Explain your choice. 5. Predict whether the genetic makeup of populations of the insect on adjacent trees would be homogeneous or differentiated. Explain your choice.