The Cold War

The Cold War Why was it ‘cold’? Because there was no direct fighting between the USSR and the USA – just an awful lot of propaganda, posturing and war by proxy.

Communism Versus Capitalism CommunismCapitalism

Phase #1: Origins and early development

The early development of the Cold War o By 1945 the alliance between the USA, the USSR and Britain to fight and defeat Nazi Germany was breaking apart. o In particular, Britain and the USA were nervous about the territory in Eastern Europe (including Germany) that the ‘Red Army’ had captured as they drove the Germans back. o Their concern was that Stalin would use these countries as protection, by making them Communist countries like the USSR. o Stalin, on the other hand, wanted to create a ‘buffer zone’ of countries friendly to the USSR to protect it from invasion (the Germans had already tried twice in the twentieth century). He didn’t trust the USA or Britain, believing that they would have left the USSR to fight the Nazis alone if they could have. The delay over D-Day ‘proved’ this to him. o Stalin did not have a good track record when it came to things like human rights … o US President Truman believed that the democratic countries of Europe would need to work together to ‘contain’ the spread of Communism. Containment became the focus of US policy from 1947 – known also as the ‘Truman Doctrine’. NATO (1949) and the Marshall Plan (1947) were two ways they tried to do this. o In 1949, when Mao Tse Tung established a Communist government in China, it seemed as though Communism was spreading across Asia as well. This was the domino theory.

Europe divided by Winston Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ (Fulton Speech, 1946) The division of Europe into two ‘blocs’, each with its own strategic alliances – NATO, (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) formed in 1949 and the corresponding Warsaw Pact, formed in Albania and Yugoslavia were ‘non-aligned’ Communist countries and Finland was not a Communist state, despite being part of the Warsaw Pact. Note the division of Germany; this was paralleled by the division of Berlin as well (via the Berlin Wall from 1961)

The world divided into ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ blocs The world divided into two ‘blocs’. The victory of Mao Tse Tung’s Communists in China and China’s subsequent economic and military development, combined with Stalin’s failure to support Mao until a Communist victory seemed certain, led to a split in the leadership of the Communist world. Kissinger in particular was able to exploit this, a policy maintained by Nixon.

M.A.D. – Mutually Assured Destruction designed to keep the peace The use of the atomic bomb by the USA on Japanese cities to end World War II led to a nuclear arms race and the threat of nuclear war and destruction as well as summits and agreements (such as the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968 and SALT I in 1972) to limit the development and deployment of nuclear weapons. Arguably, Reagan’s push to expand the USA’s nuclear arsenal and to develop the ‘Star Wars’ missile defence, pushed the over- stretched Soviet economy into collapse. Conservative historians credit Reagan with ending the Cold War for this reason.

Cold War historiography - causes TraditionalistsRevisionists 1940s and 1950s; influential into the 1960s Schlesinger McNeill Blamed the Cold War on Soviet expansionism and Stalin’s desire for world domination. Defenders of US policy of containment. Early: late 1950s. Influential: 1970s (aftermath of US ‘failure’ in Vietnam) Williams, Ambrose Cold War blamed on the US due to the post-WWII power of American capitalism and its demand for markets and raw materials. Marshall Plan seen as an attempt to introduce this into Western Europe. The USA was perceived as a hegemonic power and as establishing a form of economic imperialism. The USA misunderstood Soviet foreign policy coming out of WWII, saw the USSR as militarily ‘weaker’ and believed in its own omnipotence – this led it to ‘overplay’ its hand (Vietnam). The USSR perceived the USA and its allies as ‘untrustworthy’ before and during World War II. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939) is seen as stemming from this. Radical revisionists from the left, such as Chomsky, emphasise the imperialist intentions of the USA. Radicals from the right see the USA as protecting the free world from Communist aggression.

Cold War historiography continued Post-revisionists Recent historiography 1970s, 1980s Gaddis, Taubman Focussed on the geopolitical origins of the Cold War. Looked at the role of events, perceptions and misconceptions and bureaucratic decision-making in the development of the Cold War. Identified internal contradictions within US foreign policy and saw this as complicating relations with the USSR. Post-1991, with (limited) access to the Soviet archives. Graebner, Leffler, Trachtenberg, Gaddis. Emphasises the conflicting ideologies of each superpower as the source of the Cold War and as influencing its subsequent development. Also views the competing interests of each side, especially in Europe, as a contributing factor – US national self- determination and stability; USSR security needs and ideology. Some historians argue that power was more important than ideology in Soviet foreign policy. Others see that the issue of the Cold War was really about Germany and that, after 1963 when the status of Germany was ‘normalised’, the Cold War began to decelerate.

Forward defence in action … The Korean WarThe Vietnam War

Phase #3: Détente

Definition of détente A French word meaning a release from tension. It describes a phase in the Cold War that began in 1969, reached its high point in 1972, began to decline by 1974 and was over by 1979.

Détente – when the superpowers tried to live together Early signs of détente include Kennedy’s favourable speech about the USSR, the ‘hotline’ installed between the Kremlin and the White House after the Cuban Missile Crisis (June 1963) and the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, signed in August Other signs of détente are the French and West German policies of independent diplomacy with the Soviet Union, including the German policy of ostpolitik.

Reasons for détente – the USSR A breakdown in relations between the USSR and China. This erupted into border fighting along the Ussuri River in March The USSR had caught up in the arms race (by 1969). West Germany agreed not to get nuclear weapons in The USSR wanted to increase trade with the West.

Reasons for détente – the USA Failure in Vietnam saw Nixon wanting to improve relations with the USSR and China to achieve a peace treaty. Public pressure to reduce the risk of war. The USSR had caught up in the arms race. The USA was concerned about a possible alliance between the USSR and China. Nixon’s move away from the Truman Doctrine towards peaceful co-existence as the basis for US foreign policy. Concern about Soviet support for Egypt and Arab Nations in the Yom Kippur War in 1973.

Reasons for détente - China Fear of isolation. In 1967 the PRC perfected the H bomb.

Common reasons for détente To reduce the risk of nuclear war. To reduce the costs of the arms race. Both countries had economic problems in the 1970s. Concern over conflict in the Middle East, potentially affecting oil supplies.

Challenges to détente The Prague Spring in 1968 was a temporary setback to moves towards détente. America’s on-going involvement in the Vietnam War (until 1973). The US policy of ‘linkage’ in foreign policy with the USSR. Nixon’s resignation over the Watergate scandal in August Soviet and Cuban involvement in the Angolan Civil War (1975) and interventions in Mozambique, Somalia and Ethiopia. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

Achievements of détente The European Security Conference (the Helsinki Accords). Summit Conferences Human rights (the Helsinki Accords). Relations between the USA and China. Arms control. SALT I (1972) and SALT II (1979)

Why???

Phase #4: The ‘Second’ Cold War

The Fall of the Berlin Wall

Key issues and features

Origins and development of the Cold War Rival spheres of interest Fallout of the Bolshevik revolution and the Civil War Stalin’s mistrust of the Allies Stalin’s desire for a ‘buffer zone’ of friendly states The ‘long telegram’ persuaded Truman of Soviet expansionism Churchill’s ‘iron curtain’ speech The US development and use of the atomic bomb Berlin blockade and airlift as first ‘crisis’ of the Cold War

Influence of the ideologies of communism and capitalism Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance -1949) and the Comintern (Communist Information Bureau -1947) The Warsaw Pact Rivalry between USSR and China over leadership of the communist world USSR’s support for North Korea and Cuba (Castro ‘becomes’ a Marxist) The Marshall Plan US involvement in Africa, Vietnam,Korea, Afghanistan Reagan’s ‘evil empire’ Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ NATO Re-building West/East Germany The space race Brezhnev doctrine Kennan’s ‘Long Telegram’

Origins, nature and impact of detente Where? Mostly over Europe How? -Hotline between White house and Kremlin (1963) -Disarmament talks (especially SALT I [1972]and II) -Visits (eg: Nixon to China 1972), trade agreements and summits -Independent diplomacy by the French (with the USSR 1964; withdrew from NATO 1966) -Ostpolitik in West Germany (Willy Brandt) -Triangular diplomacy by the USA under Nixon -Relations began to ‘chill’ under Ford and Carter (human rights abuses by the USSR a key concern for him – ‘linkage’ as a diplomatic tool). -Ended with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 Who? USA and USSR as well as China Why ? Superpower conflict over Cuba (1962) and the replacement of Krushchev as well as the ‘Prague Spring’ (1968) When?

Changing policies, strategies and responses to the Cold War Truman doctrine and containment Domino theory/effect (Eisenhower) Triangular diplomacy (mostly Nixon) ‘Linkage’ over human rights for trade agreements (Carter) Peaceful co-existence (Krushchev – the 1950s). Brezhnev Doctrine Perestroika and glasnost (Gorbachev) and repudiation of the Brezhnev doctrine The ‘evil empire’ second arms race

Impact of crises on changing superpower relations Cuba (1962) Berlin ( and 1961) Afghanistan (1979) Korean War ( ) Hungary (1956) Suez (1956) Czechoslovakia (1968) Yom Kippur and Camp David (1973, 78)

The arms race and disarmament Salt II in – first use of atomic bomb by USA 1949 – USSR’s first atomic bomb Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968 SALT I in s- 2000s SDI system development 1987 – INF Treaty 1991 – START I START II 1993 CFE 1990 Partial Test Ban Treaty

Reasons for the end of the Cold War Reagan’s new arms race (especially ‘Star Wars’) placed demands on the Soviet economy as they struggled to compete, which led to the collapse of the USSR. Conservative historians use this as a reason to attribute the ending of the Cold War to Reagan and his policies Gorbachev’s program of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reform) led to improved relations with the Western bloc, to arms agreements and, ultimately to the collapse of the Eastern bloc. Gorbachev’s reforms are seen by many historians as the reason for this and therefore the end of the Cold War. Disarmament talks and agreements took the ‘heat’ out of Carter and Reagan’s new push for ‘containment’ after the invasion of Afghanistan. Examples include the INF Treaty (1987) and START I (1991). Gorbachev’s rejection of the Brezhnev Doctrine (1989) allowed countries in the eastern bloc – East Germany and Czechoslovakia in particular - to detach themselves from Moscow.