Research Terminology Student Support Services A presentation for participants in Student Support Services Troy University (Main Campus) Troy, AL 36082

Objective To help students gain understanding of terms related to academic research. To help enhance students’ ability to read/understand research compiled by other writers. To help prepare students to engage in the academic research/ research writing process.

First, what is Research? “the orderly investigation of a subject matter for the purpose of adding to knowledge”(Unesco) “investigating a new problem or phenomenon” (Unesco) Studying a subject or question that has already been studied in order to add knowledge or increase available data or information (Unesco)

Purpose of Most Research Observe and Describe (adjectives) Predict (outcomes, results) = applied statistics concepts Determine Causes (Causality) Explain results, findings, effects or issues (Analysis) Source: http://www.experiment-resources.com/research-methodology.html

Some Classes & Types of Academic Research Historical (Study of historical documents/ primary source material for the purpose of analysis for comparability and inconsistencies) Review of Literature (summary and synthesis of research information available on a topic) Descriptive (requires observation of a situation without interference; can be similar to a case study of a psychology or social science nature; requires collection of information from various source types; can lead to new discoveries) Correlational (purpose is to show relationship between two or more situations/conditions or to see how one situation/condition impacts or provokes another condition – Topic Example: Impact of hypertension on kidney health) Causal comparative (seeks to establish cause/effect relationship or discourse) Source: Kravitz, L. (n. d.). IAFC conference report: reading and interpreting research. Understanding and Enjoying Research http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/understandres.html

Classes & Types (cont’d) Experimental (based on hypothesis or hypotheses that anticipate a relationship between at least two variables) Case Study (study an actual situation to determine the application of a proposed idea or design) Research and Development Research (marketing/product design to create interests in something new or a foundation for an innovative product) Source: Kravitz, L. (n. d.). IAFC conference report: reading and interpreting research. Understanding and Enjoying Research http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/understandres.html

The Fundamental of Any type of Research The Hypothesis After the problem is determined, the hypothesis follows. Provides response(s) to the research questions before performing specific research to answer the particular question Should be “testable”–provable or not provable Offers a simple explanation for an occurrence or natural phenomena Should be realistic and reflective of critical thought about resources available to produce the anticipated result or situation Often based on earlier research (a synthesis-based assertion) Becomes the foundation on which to establish a proof Source: http://www.experiment-resources.com/research-methodology.html

Hypothesis (Examples) May be posed as a question, statement or If/Then assertion. Question: Is over-fishing causing a decline in the stocks of Cod in the North Atlantic? Statement: Over-fishing affects the stocks of cod. If/Then Assertion: If over-fishing is causing a decline in the numbers of Cod, reducing the amount of trawlers will increase cod stocks.

Key Concepts in Most Research TOPIC 􀃆 QUESTION 􀃆 DESIGN 􀃆 OBJECT 􀃆 SITE 􀃆 METHOD Source: http://www.mcguire-spickard.com/Fielding/Six%20Key%20Concepts%20in%20Social%20Research.pdf

What is a Research Topic? The research topic is the general subject of your research -- what it is about. Source: http://www.mcguire-spickard.com/Fielding/Six%20Key%20Concepts%20in%20Social%20Research.pdf

What is a Research Question? A research question is the key element in any serious research. What is the specific question or problem that needs a response? Source: http://www.mcguire-spickard.com/Fielding/Six%20Key%20Concepts%20in%20Social%20Research.pdf

What is the Research Design? There are different research designs (refer back to slides 5 & 6) that generally fall under two types of design categories: Two Design types Qualitative (requires subjective interpretation of various types of data, including literature and visual rhetoric, and it is not “preemptive.” Preemptive–pre-planned Researcher engaged in fieldwork and processes information gained through field experience.) NOTE: The hypothesis or hypotheses come at the end of the process. Quantitative (requires gaining a large sample size and is carefully designed and reflects a more objective analysis of the sample) Goal * Numberial data and statistical information that yields OBJECTIVE Evidence Source: Neill, J. (28 Feb. 2007). http://wilderdom.com/research/QualitativeVersus QuantitativeResearch.html Source: http://www.mcguire-spickard.com/Fielding/Six%20Key%20Concepts%20in%20Social%20Research.pdf

What is the Research Object? Research objectives require responses to these questions: What is the purpose of the research? What are the hypotheses? Research objectives can be general or specific. How should you state your objectives? Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence; Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose; Are realistic considering local conditions; and Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated. Examples of action verbs are: to determine, to compare, to verify, to calculate, to describe, and to establish. Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as: to appreciate, to understand, or to study. Source: http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-56599-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

What is a Research Site? The research site is the place where one conducts investigations. A researcher usually chooses a site based on the research question. Source: http://www.mcguire-spickard.com/Fielding/Six%20Key%20Concepts%20in%20Social%20Research.pdf

What is the Research Method? Research method comes last. Research method depends on all of the other elements, especially on research objects. Various fields have research methodologies (methods) typically used to conduct research. Source: http://www.mcguire-spickard.com/Fielding/Six%20Key%20Concepts%20in%20Social%20Research.pdf

What is the Population? The group of subjects selected for a study. The group is selected based on the likelihood that the study might impact that group or a group possessing characteristics comparable to the population. Source: http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/content/full/177/5/993

Population sample – Target vs. Study population TARGET POPULATION – the larger group to which we want IDEALLY to apply the study, though at the time of the study, that is most likely a group too large to study. It consists of all of the people, animals or other subjects in the world or a nation that researchers ant to apply results. STUDY POPULATION – the group to which we can actually or realistically apply the study results. Sample – The subset of the study population (specific group of individual subjects) that the researcher studies, tests, or analyzes for the purpose of data collection. Based on the census information collected, the sample may be selected. Researchers may take a Census (collect numerical or informational data on each member) of the population, study population or sample. Source: http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/content/full/177/5/993

Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/reliablt.php What is reliability? "repeatability" or "consistency“ of a measure. Measures are categorized as reliable if the measures give the same result(s) each time they are tested. There are various types of reliability. Two often referenced types of reliability are: Test-retest reliability (measures consistency of test results over a period of time)-- Subjects are retested to see if they consistently respond the same way or at the same level. Internal Consistency Reliability Used to assess the consistency of results that items in a test yield (Do the items of the tests tend to garner or motivate the same responses or reactions from different subjects) Is control group too controlled to yield a useful result? Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/reliablt.php

What is validity? Two kinds Internal validity – impact that changing cause or criterion variables (independent variables) has on the result (dependent variable) External validity: Applicability of the results of the study are to groups outside the controlled/ experimental/research site or population. (Is the study to limited to be truly useful and has wide-ranging usability?)

What is correlation? In quantitative research, the correlation coefficient is between 0 and 1 and helps measure trends. A 1.0 correlation coefficient is the ideal and reflects a strong relationship between the predicted and the actual situation. The closer to 1 the coefficient, the greater the ability to forecast outcomes.

A characteristic or factor of a particular What is a variable? A characteristic or factor of a particular subject is a variable.

What is a variable -- Two categories? 1. Dependent variable (y): The dependent variable is often referred to as the outcome (effect) or criterion variable. It is the change or difference in this variable that the researcher studies. Sample Topic: How teen’s attitudes change as a result of peer-peer mentoring

What is a variable -- Two categories? 2. Independent variable (x): The independent variable is also referred to as the cause or experimental variable. An independent variable “. . . stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure. For example, someone's age might be an independent variable.” (nces.edu) It can cause dependent variables to change. Source: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/help/user_guide/graph/variables.asp

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