History & Research Research Methods Unit 1 / Learning Goal 2

III. Research Methods “What was the last big purchase that you made?”

 1) Did you shop around?  2) Did you talk to other people who had bought something similar?  3) Did you go with a “trusted” brand?

Purpose  These opening questions serve a purpose grounded in research  Once you have your research question (i.e., in the class example you are making a big purchase)

Research Begins!

Research  you seek out more information (i.e., shopping around)  you review previous research and engage in peer discussions (i.e., talking with others who have bought something similar)

 use appropriate scientific methods, like correlations, experimental designs, case studies (i.e., using the trusted brands). Research continued

Great Work, but hold up We should discuss: Statistical Significance Statistical statement of how likely it is that a study’s result occurred merely by chance

Statistics are affected by: Population In research, a population is the set of objects to be studied.

Statistics are also affected by: Sample  A sample is a subset of a population selected to represent and draw inferences about that population.  It is a research technique widely used in the social sciences as a way to gather information about a population without having to measure the entire population.

Now, back to Statistics 2 main types Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics

Descriptive  Descriptive statistics includes statistical procedures that we use to describe the population we are studying  The data could be collected from either a sample or a population, but the results help us organize and describe data

Descriptive  Descriptive statistics can only be used to describe the group that is being studying.  That is, the results cannot be generalized to any larger group.

Inferential  Inferential statistics is concerned with making predictions or inferences about a population from observations and analyses of a sample.  That is, we can take the results of an analysis using a sample and can generalize it to the larger population that the sample represents.

Inferential  In order to do this, however, it is imperative that the sample is representative of the group to which it is being generalized.

Standard Deviation  We’ll get back to this  First, lets go over the steps of Research

1. Logic 2. Experience 3. Revision of another theory 4. Accidental finding Scientific Method A. Theory An organized set of principles that describes, predicts and explains behavior; based on

B. Generate Hypothesis “testable predictions” 1. Operational definitions 2. Conditions: a) SETTING OF OBSERVATIONS  Lab research: laboratory observation; experiment; has elements of control, i.e., precision of measurement, uniform conditions  Field research (naturalistic observation); has much less control

b) Way the variable is measured  Self report: distortion in a favorable light: hidden motivations; faulty memories  Behavioral observations: pressing bar, smiling, eye movements, heartbeat, hitting, choosing a career path, declaring a major, moving eyes  Archival records: academic records, medical records, literacy rates, absenteeism at work, sports statistics

c) Time over which data is collected  Cross-sectional  researchers studying developmental psychology might select groups of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this, any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather than to other variables.

 Longitudinal  type of research method used to discover relationships between variables that are not related to various background variables. This observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time.between variables  In some cases, longitudinal studies can last several decades. d) Types of conclusions drawn (Methods)

II) Research Designs: Methods: the types of conclusions drawn are limited by the method used A. Descriptive Research 1. Case Studies a) Tests, interviews, first-hand observations, biographical material b) Assumption: in-depth material on one person reveals something about all people c) Problem: time-consuming and limited in generalizability a) Phineas Gage Phineas Gage

2) Surveys a) Describe sample of a population  Phone book  Internet  Driver Registration

b) Responses to a question/wording (framing) of question  Assisting poor vs. welfare c) Media Used 3) Naturalistic Observation

B) Correlational Studies: “What is the connection between variables?” 1. Statistical measure of the extent to which 2 factors are associated 2. Scatterplot; direction & Strength 3. Predictor and Criterion variables 4. Intervening variables (underlying)  simply a summary of the relationships observed between independent and dependent variables  For example, hunger is a hypothetical internal state which has been used to explain the relationships between independent variables such as length of time without food, or amount of food consumed, and dependent variables which are measures of eatingeating

C) Experiments: determine cause and effect 1. Variables: Independent and dependent 2. Control: vary one factor, keep all other aspects constant, measure effect 1. Random Assignment 2. Experimenter effects: single and double blind replication: consistent result that stands the test of time

D) Ability to Generalize 1. Interpretive review of the literature  Make comparisons, discern patterns, note strengths and weaknesses of each study 2. Statistical  Meta-analysis: statistical combination of data and results of multiple studies

III) Ethics A. Concerns: investigators are responsible for the well-being of those who participate in research  Right to privacy  Harm or discomfort caused by procedures  Use of deception

B) APA Guidelines 1. Informed concent 2. Freedom to withdraw 3. Minimized harm and discomfort 4. Confidentiality of data 5. Debrief if deception is necessary