AP Language & Composition 9/28/11 Logical Fallacies AP Language & Composition 9/28/11

What are Logical Fallacies? Attempts at persuasion that make something appear logical even though it isn’t. Effective on the surface but not under close scrutiny. Umbrella term: Non Sequitur A statement in which the conclusion does not logically follow the claim.

Where are they most common? Political campaign ads or speeches Commercial documentaries (not news programs) Advertisments

Ad hominem Attacking an individual instead of the argument False because individual opinions are not at issue; the evidence that supports those opinions is at issue. Example: Anyone who agrees with (insert controversial political figure here) is an idiot.

Bandwagon The “everybody’s doing it, so it’s the right thing to do” fallacy False because firstly, everyone is rarely doing any one thing, and secondly, the fact that many do something does not have any logical connection to right or wrong Example: How could you possibly like Coke? Everyone likes Pepsi better!

Tradition The fallacy that because something has always been done or looked a certain way, that the tradition itself implies rightness. Going against the tradition is wrong. False because tradition is and only is tradition, not a comment on correctness or truthfulness Example: The tradition of America is that we eat turkey on Thanksgiving. Anyone who doesn’t eat turkey on Thanksgiving is un-American in their values.

Circular Logic The reason given is nothing more than a restatement of the conclusion that poses as the reason for the conclusion Obviously, logic can not be circular. It can only be linear. Example: You should exercise because it is good for you. According to whom? Good how? Logic actually works like this: You should exercise because studies by experts have proven that it has long-term health benefits, such as weight maintenance, lower rates of heart disease, healthier blood flow to the brain, and stronger bones.

Cause & Effect Attributing an effect to a cause simply because they occur close together in time or space Example: The unemployment rate went up; therefore, the number of jobs available went down. (Not necessarily. There may be plenty of jobs available but possibly not ones the unemployed are qualified for. Perhaps people were working temporarily—this often happens in the holiday season)

Guilt by Association Assuming one member of a group of people shares all traits with the larger group. Example: All Democrats support measures that increase the national debt. You are a Democrat. You support an increase in the national debt.

Double Standard Stating a rule applies to one group or another simply because of the membership in that group. Example: Men who have multiple sex partners are often revered as “studly” while women who do the same are “slutty.”

Red Herring Introducing a topic not related to the main point, or including something tangentially related as a distractor from the main point. Example: Education reform must include changes to teacher evaluations. The unions resist these changes because they are anti-government.

Straw Man Used in a debate setting or refutation section of a written argument. Misrepresenting an opponent’s position to appear as though you are refuting another argument. Example: Pro-choice groups believe there is nothing wrong with abortion and don’t support efforts to help families. Another Example: Pro-life groups believe the only important thing is having children, not taking care of them after they’re born.

False Analogy Comparing two things that are alike in some ways, just not necessarily in the way being compared Example: Government is like business, so just as business must be sensitive primarily to the bottom line, so also must government. Although alike in many ways, the objectives of government and business are completely different, so they will have to meet different criteria. This argument CAN work, but the analogy has to be fully explained.

Misrepresentation of the Facts Taking evidence out of context to suit the needs of your argument Example: Mitt Romney and President Obama each distort the facts in TV ads aimed at young mothers: Romney’s ad falsely attributes the nation’s $16 trillion debt all to Obama when it says “your share of Obama’s debt is over $50,000.” The total public debt was $10.6 trillion when Obama took office, and he inherited a $1 trillion-plus deficit in his first year. Obama’s ad claims Romney’s tax plan “could take away middle-class deductions for child care, home mortgages and college tuition,” citing a nonpartisan study. But the independent group cited by the president’s campaign disputes the campaign’s interpretation of its study.