Language Learning Strategies 王立非 philipw@126.com

Outline: Definitions Controversial Classifications

Why bother about learning strategy? What is learning Strategy?

Changes in paradigm: Teacher/teaching-centered to Learner/learning-centered

Stern (1983): Strategy is general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.

Winstein (1986): Learning strategies are the behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process.

Chamot (1987): Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information.

Rubin (1987): Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly.

Oxford (1990): Language learning strategies are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.

Cohen (2006): Learners’ conscious and semi-conscious thoughts and behaviors, to improve the knowledge and understanding of L2, as well as strategies for using the language that has been learned or for getting around gaps in language proficiency.

Controversial: observable behavior or mental activities, or both? general tendency or specific techniques?

Controversial: conscious or unconscious? direct or indirect?

No Unified Answer yet Strategy Method technique

Strategy: Cognitive Learner perspective Communicative

Classifications (Cohen 2006): By goal: By function: By skill: Others

By goal: Language learning strategies (e. g By goal: Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language use strategies (e.g., retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies). By function: Metacognitive, cognitive, socio-affective.

By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies. Others: Strategies by proficiency levels, by specific cultures (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or by specific languages.

Two-way classification Language Learning Strategies (a) identifying material to be learned, (b) distinguishing it from other material, (c) grouping it for easier learning, (d) engaging in repeated contact with it, (e) formally committing it to memory (e.g., using rote memory or mnemonics).

Language use strategies rehearsal strategies – strategies for practicing target language structures (e.g., rehearsing “would you mind…” in a request to a teacher to be excused for the day). b) retrieval strategies – strategies to call up language material from storage (e.g., calling up the correct verb in its appropriate tense).

communication strategies – are the verbal (or nonverbal) first aid devices used to deal with problems or break- downs in communication.

Communication strategies serve to: steer conversation away from problematic areas, express meaning in creative ways (e.g., by paraphrasing a word/concept), create more time to think (e.g., by using fillers or other hesitation devices), negotiate the difficult parts of the communication until everything is clear.

Three-way classification Metacognitive Social Cognitive O’Malley & Chamot (1990)

Cognitive strategies – the learning strategies of identification, grouping, retention, and storage of language material, as well as the language use strategies of retrieval, rehearsal, and comprehension or production of words, phrases, etc.

认知策略(cognitive) l         重复（repetition） l         翻译（translation） l         归类（grouping） l         记笔记（note-taking） l         利用关键词（key word） l         利用上下文情景（contextualization） l         拓展（elaboration） l         迁移（transfer） l         推测（inferencing）

Metacognitive strategies – processes learners consciously use to supervise or manage their language learning. allow learners to control their own cognition by planning what they will do, checking how it is going, and then evaluating how it went.

元认知策略(Meta-cognitive)： l         提前准备（advance organizers） l         集中注意（directed attention） l         选择注意（selective attention） l         自我管理（self-management） l         事先练习（advance preparation） l         自我监控（self-monitoring） l         延迟表达（delayed production） l         自我评价（self-evaluation）

Affective strategies – strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.

Social strategies – strategies for interacting with other learners and with native speakers for practice.

社交/情感策略(social/affective) l    协作（cooperation） l   提问澄清（question for clarification） l    求助（question for help)

Multi-way classification Receptive skills -- listening and reading. Productive skills -- speaking and writing. vocabulary learning. Grammar. translation.

Assessing Your Strategy

Thank You