Chapter 4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry AP*

AP Learning Objectives  LO 1.4: The student is able to connect the number of particles, moles, mass, and volume of substances to one another, both qualitatively and quantitatively. (Sec 4.3)  LO 1.17: The student is able to express the law of conservation of mass quantitatively and qualitatively using symbolic representations and particulate drawings. (Sec 4.5)  LO 1.18: The student is able to apply conservation of atoms to the rearrangement of atoms in various processes. (Sec 4.9)  LO 2.8: The student can draw and/or interpret representations of solutions that show the interactions between the solute and solvent. (Sec )  LO 2.9: The student is able to create or interpret representations that link the concept of molarity with particle views of solutions. (Sec )  LO 2.14: The student is able to apply Coulomb’s Law qualitatively (including using representations) to describe the interactions of ions, and the attractions between ions and solvents to explain the factors that contribute to the solubility of ionic compounds. (Sec 4.1)

AP Learning Objectives  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views. (Sec )  LO 3.2: The student can translate an observed chemical change into a balanced chemical equation and justify the choice of equation type (molecular, ionic, or net ionic) in terms of utility for the given circumstances. (Sec )  LO 3.3: The student is able to use stoichiometric calculations to predict the results of performing a reaction in the laboratory and/or to analyze deviations from the expected results. (Sec 4.8)  LO 3.4: The student is able to relate quantities (measured mass of substances, volumes of solutions, or volumes and pressures of gases) to identify stoichiometric relationships for a reaction, including situations involving limiting reactants and situations in which the reaction has not gone to completion. (Sec 4.8)  LO 3.8: The student is able to identify redox reactions and justify the identification in terms of electron transfer. (Sec 4.9)

AP Learning Objectives  LO 3.9: The student is able to design and/or interpret the results of an experiment involving a redox titration. (Sec )  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions. (Sec )

Section 4.1 Water, the Common Solvent AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 2.8: The student can draw and/or interpret representations of solutions that show the interactions between the solute and solvent.  LO 2.9: The student is able to create or interpret representations that link the concept of molarity with particle views of solutions.  LO 2.14: The student is able to apply Coulomb’s Law qualitatively (including using representations) to describe the interactions of ions, and the attractions between ions and solvents to explain the factors that contribute to the solubility of ionic compounds.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.1 Water, the Common Solvent Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 6  One of the most important substances on Earth.  Can dissolve many different substances.  A polar molecule because of its unequal charge distribution.

Section 4.1 Water, the Common Solvent Dissolution of a solid in a liquid Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7 To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode PC Users: Please wait for content to load, then click to play Mac Users: CLICK HERECLICK HERE

Section 4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 2.8: The student can draw and/or interpret representations of solutions that show the interactions between the solute and solvent.  LO 2.9: The student is able to create or interpret representations that link the concept of molarity with particle views of solutions.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes Nature of Aqueous Solutions  Solute – substance being dissolved.  Solvent – liquid water.  Electrolyte – substance that when dissolved in water produces a solution that can conduct electricity. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9

Section 4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes Electrolytes  Strong Electrolytes – conduct current very efficiently (bulb shines brightly). Completely ionized in water.  Weak Electrolytes – conduct only a small current (bulb glows dimly). A small degree of ionization in water.  Nonelectrolytes – no current flows (bulb remains unlit). Dissolves but does not produce any ions. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10

Section 4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes Electrolyte behavior Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11 To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode PC Users: Please wait for content to load, then click to play Mac Users: CLICK HERECLICK HERE

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 1.4: The student is able to connect the number of particles, moles, mass, and volume of substances to one another, both qualitatively and quantitatively.  LO 2.8: The student can draw and/or interpret representations of solutions that show the interactions between the solute and solvent.  LO 2.9: The student is able to create or interpret representations that link the concept of molarity with particle views of solutions.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Chemical Reactions of Solutions  We must know:  The nature of the reaction.  The amounts of chemicals present in the solutions. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Molarity  Molarity (M) = moles of solute per volume of solution in liters: Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions A g sample of potassium phosphate is dissolved in enough water to make 1.50 L of solution. What is the molarity of the solution? 1.57 M Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15 EXERCISE!

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Concentration of Ions  For a 0.25 M CaCl 2 solution: CaCl 2 → Ca Cl –  Ca 2+ : 1 × 0.25 M = 0.25 M Ca 2+  Cl – : 2 × 0.25 M = 0.50 M Cl –. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Which of the following solutions contains the greatest number of ions? a) mL of 0.10 M NaCl. b) mL of 0.10 M CaCl 2. c) mL of 0.10 M FeCl 3. d) mL of 0.10 M sucrose. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17 CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Let’s Think About It  Where are we going?  To find the solution that contains the greatest number of moles of ions.  How do we get there?  Draw molecular level pictures showing each solution. Think about relative numbers of ions.  How many moles of each ion are in each solution? Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 18

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Notice  The solution with the greatest number of ions is not necessarily the one in which:  the volume of the solution is the largest.  the formula unit has the greatest number of ions. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 19

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions Dilution  The process of adding water to a concentrated or stock solution to achieve the molarity desired for a particular solution.  Dilution with water does not alter the numbers of moles of solute present.  Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution M 1 V 1 = M 2 V 2 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 20

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions A 0.50 M solution of sodium chloride in an open beaker sits on a lab bench. Which of the following would decrease the concentration of the salt solution? a)Add water to the solution. b)Pour some of the solution down the sink drain. c)Add more sodium chloride to the solution. d)Let the solution sit out in the open air for a couple of days. e)At least two of the above would decrease the concentration of the salt solution. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 21 CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.3 The Composition of Solutions What is the minimum volume of a 2.00 M NaOH solution needed to make mL of a M NaOH solution? 60.0 mL Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22 EXERCISE!

Section 4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions  Precipitation Reactions  Acid–Base Reactions  Oxidation–Reduction Reactions Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 24

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 1.17: The student is able to express the law of conservation of mass quantitatively and qualitatively using symbolic representations and particulate drawings.  LO 1.18: The student is able to apply conservation of atoms to the rearrangement of atoms in various processes.  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views.  LO 3.2: The student can translate an observed chemical change into a balanced chemical equation and justify the choice of equation type (molecular, ionic, or net ionic) in terms of utility for the given circumstances.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions Precipitation Reaction  A double displacement reaction in which a solid forms and separates from the solution.  When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the resulting solution contains the separated ions.  Precipitate – the solid that forms. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions The Reaction of K 2 CrO 4 (aq) and Ba(NO 3 ) 2 (aq)  Ba 2+ (aq) + CrO 4 2– (aq) → BaCrO 4 (s) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions Precipitation of Silver Chloride Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28 To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode PC Users: Please wait for content to load, then click to play Mac Users: CLICK HERECLICK HERE

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions Precipitates  Soluble – solid dissolves in solution; (aq) is used in reaction equation.  Insoluble – solid does not dissolve in solution; (s) is used in reaction equation.  Insoluble and slightly soluble are often used interchangeably. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 29

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions Simple Rules for Solubility 1.Most nitrate (NO 3  ) salts are soluble. 2.Most alkali metal (group 1A) salts and NH 4 + are soluble. 3.Most Cl , Br , and I  salts are soluble (except Ag +, Pb 2+, Hg 2 2+ ). 4.Most sulfate salts are soluble (except BaSO 4, PbSO 4, Hg 2 SO 4, CaSO 4 ). 5.Most OH  are only slightly soluble (NaOH, KOH are soluble, Ba(OH) 2, Ca(OH) 2 are marginally soluble). 6.Most S 2 , CO 3 2 , CrO 4 2 , PO 4 3  salts are only slightly soluble, except for those containing the cations in Rule 2. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 30

Section 4.5 Precipitation Reactions Which of the following ions form compounds with Pb 2+ that are generally soluble in water? a)S 2– b)Cl – c)NO 3 – d)SO 4 2– e)Na + Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 31 CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views.  LO 3.2: The student can translate an observed chemical change into a balanced chemical equation and justify the choice of equation type (molecular, ionic, or net ionic) in terms of utility for the given circumstances.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution Formula Equation (Molecular Equation)  Gives the overall reaction stoichiometry but not necessarily the actual forms of the reactants and products in solution.  Reactants and products generally shown as compounds.  Use solubility rules to determine which compounds are aqueous and which compounds are solids. AgNO 3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO 3 (aq) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 33

Section 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution Complete Ionic Equation  All substances that are strong electrolytes are represented as ions. Ag + (aq) + NO 3  (aq) + Na + (aq) + Cl  (aq) AgCl(s) + Na + (aq) + NO 3  (aq) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 34

Section 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution Net Ionic Equation  Includes only those solution components undergoing a change.  Show only components that actually react. Ag + (aq) + Cl  (aq)  AgCl(s)  Spectator ions are not included (ions that do not participate directly in the reaction).  Na + and NO 3  are spectator ions. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 35

Section 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution Write the correct formula equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic equation for the reaction between cobalt(II) chloride and sodium hydroxide. Formula Equation: CoCl 2 (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Co(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaCl(aq) Complete Ionic Equation: Co 2+ (aq) + 2Cl  (aq) + 2Na + (aq) + 2OH  (aq) Co(OH) 2 (s) + 2Na + (aq) + 2Cl  (aq) Net Ionic Equation: Co 2+ (aq) + 2Cl  (aq)  Co(OH) 2 (s) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 36 CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views.  LO 3.2: The student can translate an observed chemical change into a balanced chemical equation and justify the choice of equation type (molecular, ionic, or net ionic) in terms of utility for the given circumstances.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions Solving Stoichiometry Problems for Reactions in Solution 1.Identify the species present in the combined solution, and determine what reaction occurs. 2.Write the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction. 3.Calculate the moles of reactants. 4.Determine which reactant is limiting. 5.Calculate the moles of product(s), as required. 6.Convert to grams or other units, as required. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 38

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 10.0 mL of a 0.30 M sodium phosphate solution reacts with 20.0 mL of a 0.20 M lead(II) nitrate solution (assume no volume change).  What precipitate will form? lead(II) phosphate, Pb 3 (PO 4 ) 2  What mass of precipitate will form? 1.1 g Pb 3 (PO 4 ) 2 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 39 (Part I) CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions Let’s Think About It  Where are we going?  To find the mass of solid Pb 3 (PO 4 ) 2 formed.  How do we get there?  What are the ions present in the combined solution?  What is the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction?  What are the moles of reactants present in the solution?  Which reactant is limiting?  What moles of Pb 3 (PO 4 ) 2 will be formed?  What mass of Pb 3 (PO 4 ) 2 will be formed? Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 40

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 10.0 mL of a 0.30 M sodium phosphate solution reacts with 20.0 mL of a 0.20 M lead(II) nitrate solution (assume no volume change).  What is the concentration of nitrate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete? 0.27 M Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 41 (Part II) CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions Let’s Think About It  Where are we going?  To find the concentration of nitrate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete.  How do we get there?  What are the moles of nitrate ions present in the combined solution?  What is the total volume of the combined solution? Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 42

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 10.0 mL of a 0.30 M sodium phosphate solution reacts with 20.0 mL of a 0.20 M lead(II) nitrate solution (assume no volume change).  What is the concentration of phosphate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete? M Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 43 (Part III) CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.7 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions Let’s Think About It  Where are we going?  To find the concentration of phosphate ions left in solution after the reaction is complete.  How do we get there?  What are the moles of phosphate ions present in the solution at the start of the reaction?  How many moles of phosphate ions were used up in the reaction to make the solid Pb 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ?  How many moles of phosphate ions are left over after the reaction is complete?  What is the total volume of the combined solution? Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 44

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views.  LO 3.2: The student can translate an observed chemical change into a balanced chemical equation and justify the choice of equation type (molecular, ionic, or net ionic) in terms of utility for the given circumstances.  LO 3.3: The student is able to use stoichiometric calculations to predict the results of performing a reaction in the laboratory and/or to analyze deviations from the expected results.  LO 3.4: The student is able to relate quantities (measured mass of substances, volumes of solutions, or volumes and pressures of gases) to identify stoichiometric relationships for a reaction, including situations involving limiting reactants and situations in which the reaction has not gone to completion.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)  LO 3.13 (see APEC #4, “Analysis of Vinegar”)

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions Acid–Base Reactions (Brønsted–Lowry)  Acid—proton donor  Base—proton acceptor  For a strong acid and base reaction: H + (aq) + OH – (aq)  H 2 O(l) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 46

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions Neutralization of a Strong Acid by a Strong Base Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 47 To play movie you must be in Slide Show Mode PC Users: Please wait for content to load, then click to play Mac Users: CLICK HERECLICK HERE

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions Performing Calculations for Acid – Base Reactions 1.List the species present in the combined solution before any reaction occurs, and decide what reaction will occur. 2.Write the balanced net ionic equation for this reaction. 3.Calculate moles of reactants. 4.Determine the limiting reactant, where appropriate. 5.Calculate the moles of the required reactant or product. 6.Convert to grams or volume (of solution), as required. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 48

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions Acid–Base Titrations  Titration – delivery of a measured volume of a solution of known concentration (the titrant) into a solution containing the substance being analyzed (the analyte).  Equivalence point – enough titrant added to react exactly with the analyte.  Endpoint – the indicator changes color so you can tell the equivalence point has been reached. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 49

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions For the titration of sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), how many moles of sodium hydroxide would be required to react with 1.00 L of M sulfuric acid to reach the endpoint? 1.00 mol NaOH Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 50 CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.8 Acid-Base Reactions Let’s Think About It  Where are we going?  To find the moles of NaOH required for the reaction.  How do we get there?  What are the ions present in the combined solution? What is the reaction?  What is the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction?  What are the moles of H + present in the solution?  How much OH – is required to react with all of the H + present? Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 51

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 1.18: The student is able to apply conservation of atoms to the rearrangement of atoms in various processes.  LO 3.1: Students can translate among macroscopic observations of change, chemical equations, and particle views.  LO 3.2: The student can translate an observed chemical change into a balanced chemical equation and justify the choice of equation type (molecular, ionic, or net ionic) in terms of utility for the given circumstances.  LO 3.8: The student is able to identify redox reactions and justify the identification in terms of electron transfer.  LO 3.9: The student is able to design and/or interpret the results of an experiment involving a redox titration.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.9 (see APEC #8, “Analysis by Oxidation-Reduction Titration”)  LO 3.9 (see Appendix 7.1 “Simple Oxidation-Reduction Titrations”)  LO 3.10 (see APEC #9, “Actions, Reactions, and Interactions”)

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Redox Reactions  Reactions in which one or more electrons are transferred. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 53

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Reaction of Sodium and Chlorine Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 54

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Rules for Assigning Oxidation States 1.Oxidation state of an atom in an element = 0 2.Oxidation state of monatomic ion = charge of the ion 3.Oxygen =  2 in covalent compounds (except in peroxides where it =  1) 4.Hydrogen = +1 in covalent compounds 5.Fluorine =  1 in compounds 6.Sum of oxidation states = 0 in compounds 7.Sum of oxidation states = charge of the ion in ions Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 55

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Find the oxidation states for each of the elements in each of the following compounds:  K 2 Cr 2 O 7  CO 3 2-  MnO 2  PCl 5  SF 4 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 56 K = +1; Cr = +6; O = –2 C = +4; O = –2 Mn = +4; O = –2 P = +5; Cl = –1 S = +4; F = –1 EXERCISE!

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Redox Characteristics  Transfer of electrons  Transfer may occur to form ions  Oxidation – increase in oxidation state (loss of electrons); reducing agent  Reduction – decrease in oxidation state (gain of electrons); oxidizing agent Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 57

Section 4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Which of the following are oxidation-reduction reactions? Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent. a)Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g) b)Cr 2 O 7 2- (aq) + 2OH - (aq) 2CrO 4 2- (aq) + H 2 O(l) c)2CuCl(aq) CuCl 2 (aq) + Cu(s) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved CONCEPT CHECK!

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References  Learning Objectives  LO 3.9: The student is able to design and/or interpret the results of an experiment involving a redox titration.  LO 3.10: The student is able to evaluate the classification of a process as a physical change, chemical change, or ambiguous change based on both macroscopic observations and the distinction between rearrangement of covalent interactions and noncovalent interactions.  Additional AP References  LO 3.9 (see APEC #8, “Analysis by Oxidation-Reduction Titration”)  LO 3.9 (see Appendix 7.1 “Simple Oxidation-Reduction Titrations”)

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions by Oxidation States 1.Write the unbalanced equation. 2.Determine the oxidation states of all atoms in the reactants and products. 3.Show electrons gained and lost using “tie lines.” 4.Use coefficients to equalize the electrons gained and lost. 5.Balance the rest of the equation by inspection. 6.Add appropriate states. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 60

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations  Balance the reaction between solid zinc and aqueous hydrochloric acid to produce aqueous zinc(II) chloride and hydrogen gas. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 61

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 1. What is the unbalanced equation?  Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + Cl – (aq) + H 2 (g) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 62

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 2. What are the oxidation states for each atom?  Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + Cl – (aq) + H 2 (g) 0 +1 –1 +2 –1 0 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 63

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 3. How are electrons gained and lost? 1 e – gained (each atom)  Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + Cl – (aq) + H 2 (g) 0 +1 –1 +2 –1 0 2 e – lost  The oxidation state of chlorine remains unchanged. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 64

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 4. What coefficients are needed to equalize the electrons gained and lost? 1 e – gained (each atom) × 2  Zn(s) + HCl(aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + Cl – (aq) + H 2 (g) 0 +1 –1 +2 –1 0 2 e – lost  Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + Cl – (aq) + H 2 (g) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 65

Section 4.10 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 5. What coefficients are needed to balance the remaining elements?  Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + 2Cl – (aq) + H 2 (g) Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 66