Psychology

What is Psychology? study of how and why humans act/behave as they do study of how and why humans act/behave as they do Instead of studying how humans function in cultures or societies, psychology focuses on the individual, and the personal and unique experiences that influence how the individual behaves and thinks Instead of studying how humans function in cultures or societies, psychology focuses on the individual, and the personal and unique experiences that influence how the individual behaves and thinks

Types of Psychology Experimental Psychology The branch of the discipline that sets up experiments to see how individuals act in particular situations The branch of the discipline that sets up experiments to see how individuals act in particular situations Question - Would you help a complete stranger that was being threatened with violence from another person? Question - Would you help a complete stranger that was being threatened with violence from another person?

Clinical Psychology CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY is the branch of the discipline that develops programs for treating individuals suffering from mental illnesses and behavioural disorders CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY is the branch of the discipline that develops programs for treating individuals suffering from mental illnesses and behavioural disorders Eg. Psychologists treat dangerous offenders in federal prisons in an attempt to prevent them from reoffending on release Eg. Psychologists treat dangerous offenders in federal prisons in an attempt to prevent them from reoffending on release

Psychological Schools of Thought Like the other social sciences, psychology has been divided into a number of schools of thought: Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic Theory Behaviourism Behaviourism Learning Theory Learning Theory

Psychoanalytic Theory The mind is divided into two parts: the conscious (aware of ) and the unconscious (not aware of) The mind is divided into two parts: the conscious (aware of ) and the unconscious (not aware of) According to psychologists, our unconscious mind has more influence than our conscious mind on our personalities and behaviour According to psychologists, our unconscious mind has more influence than our conscious mind on our personalities and behaviour

The Unconscious Mind The Unconscious mind is divided into three parts: 1. Id – which encourages us to seek physical satisfaction 2. Superego – prompts us to do the moral thing, not the one that feels best 3. Ego – the referee between the two and deals with external reality, this is our most conscious self

Sigmund Freud The founder of psychoanalytic theory The founder of psychoanalytic theory He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our unconscious mind He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our unconscious mind While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on the way we function While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on the way we function Those that live with a general sense of frustration, our behaviour may become neurotic and connected with anxiety or obsessiveness which can be treated using dream analysis, hypnosis and individual counseling Those that live with a general sense of frustration, our behaviour may become neurotic and connected with anxiety or obsessiveness which can be treated using dream analysis, hypnosis and individual counseling Freud felt that individual sexual satisfaction or frustration was the key element in personality development Freud felt that individual sexual satisfaction or frustration was the key element in personality development

Alfred Adler ( ) Adler believed that difficulties people encounter in gaining self-esteem and recognition, if not overcome by the normal means lead to compensatory behaviour and resultant personality disorders which are now widely referred to as an inferiority complex. Adler believed that difficulties people encounter in gaining self-esteem and recognition, if not overcome by the normal means lead to compensatory behaviour and resultant personality disorders which are now widely referred to as an inferiority complex.

Carl Jung ( ) Responsible for the identification of the Extroverted (outward-looking; outgoing; rely on others for sense of well being) and Introverted (inward- looking; emotionally self sufficient; well being comes from within) personality types. Responsible for the identification of the Extroverted (outward-looking; outgoing; rely on others for sense of well being) and Introverted (inward- looking; emotionally self sufficient; well being comes from within) personality types. Worked closely with Freud but split later in their careers Worked closely with Freud but split later in their careers The other aspect of Jung's work which has been very influential is his approach to the analysis of dreams. The other aspect of Jung's work which has been very influential is his approach to the analysis of dreams.

Behaviourism Behaviourists believe that psychologists can predict and control or modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place Behaviourists believe that psychologists can predict and control or modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place Behaviourists placed particular stress on the early childhood years, and the rules or practices parents use to raise their children because they believe these methods have a huge influence on the character of individuals even into adulthood Behaviourists placed particular stress on the early childhood years, and the rules or practices parents use to raise their children because they believe these methods have a huge influence on the character of individuals even into adulthood

Charles B. Watson ( ) The founder of behaviourism The founder of behaviourism He used animal experiments to determine whether strict of flexible learning patterns are more effective He used animal experiments to determine whether strict of flexible learning patterns are more effective Wrote book “Psychological Care of the Infant and Child” concluded that children should be brought up using a ‘scientific’, strictly scheduled, rules-based model. Wrote book “Psychological Care of the Infant and Child” concluded that children should be brought up using a ‘scientific’, strictly scheduled, rules-based model.

Benjamin Spock ( ) He believed that a permissive approach to child rearing, rather than a strict one, would result in successful, well-adjusted adults. He believed that a permissive approach to child rearing, rather than a strict one, would result in successful, well-adjusted adults. He encouraged parents to be loving, flexible and supportive He encouraged parents to be loving, flexible and supportive Wrote book “Baby and Child Care” Wrote book “Baby and Child Care”

Learning Theory Learning Theorists agree that humans are born with little instinct but much learning potential Learning Theorists agree that humans are born with little instinct but much learning potential They believe that most human behaviour is learned, especially in child and youth They believe that most human behaviour is learned, especially in child and youth By controlling the way in which humans learn behaviours, society can have a great influence on their ultimate personalities By controlling the way in which humans learn behaviours, society can have a great influence on their ultimate personalities Believe that children who were brought up in loving families would grow up to become secure and loving adults, but only if parents provided clear and consistent expectations for good behaviour, and swift but fair consequences for bad behaviour Believe that children who were brought up in loving families would grow up to become secure and loving adults, but only if parents provided clear and consistent expectations for good behaviour, and swift but fair consequences for bad behaviour

Psychological Questions Focus on people’s behaviours (what they do) and attitudes (what they think) Focus on people’s behaviours (what they do) and attitudes (what they think) Key Questions: -what must people do to successfully change their behaviours? -what factors make behaviour-modification programs successful? -do most people need help changing behaviour, or can they be self changers? Key Questions: -what must people do to successfully change their behaviours? -what factors make behaviour-modification programs successful? -do most people need help changing behaviour, or can they be self changers? Example: Consider an individual who has been convicted three times for driving under the influence. Is it necessary to change a person’s attitude about drinking before he or she will stop drinking and driving? Example: Consider an individual who has been convicted three times for driving under the influence. Is it necessary to change a person’s attitude about drinking before he or she will stop drinking and driving?

Theory of Attitude Change Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory Six Stages of Change (Behaviour Modification) -Pre-contemplation (denial, refusal) -Contemplation (questioning) -Preparation (investigation) -Action (commitment) -Maintenance (transition) -Termination (completion) Six Stages of Change (Behaviour Modification) -Pre-contemplation (denial, refusal) -Contemplation (questioning) -Preparation (investigation) -Action (commitment) -Maintenance (transition) -Termination (completion) Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive and Negative Reinforcement

B.F. Skinner ( ) Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to peck at a particular coloured disk to get food rewards Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to peck at a particular coloured disk to get food rewards Rats received food rewards for pressing specific levers in a complicated sequence leading many theorists to believe that learning was a STIMULUS-RESPONSE effect Rats received food rewards for pressing specific levers in a complicated sequence leading many theorists to believe that learning was a STIMULUS-RESPONSE effect He believed that if the subject is correctly stimulated it will give the appropriate response He believed that if the subject is correctly stimulated it will give the appropriate response Theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning can be programmed by whatever consequences follows a particular behaviour Theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning can be programmed by whatever consequences follows a particular behaviour

Abraham Maslow ( ) Analysis of human needs organized into a hierarchy ranging from basic survival through to the need for love, security and esteem Analysis of human needs organized into a hierarchy ranging from basic survival through to the need for love, security and esteem Highest level was “self actualization (integration of the self > making the personality whole) Highest level was “self actualization (integration of the self > making the personality whole) Maslow’s theories had most profound impact on industrial psychology (making workplace a satisfying experience by raising morale of workers to improve performance) Maslow’s theories had most profound impact on industrial psychology (making workplace a satisfying experience by raising morale of workers to improve performance)

Ivan Pavlov ( ) Pavlov’s experiments with dogs showed that it was possible to get a dog to associate the sound of a bell with the imminent arrival of food Pavlov’s experiments with dogs showed that it was possible to get a dog to associate the sound of a bell with the imminent arrival of food At the sound of a bell, the dog would salivate in anticipation At the sound of a bell, the dog would salivate in anticipation

Alfred Bandura (Born in 1925) Bandura concluded that learning is largely a modeling experience and more complicated than a mere stimulus- response effect Bandura concluded that learning is largely a modeling experience and more complicated than a mere stimulus- response effect When humans observe behaviour – either acceptable or unacceptable – they are more likely to practice it When humans observe behaviour – either acceptable or unacceptable – they are more likely to practice it Experiment- used a Bobo doll to see if children would act aggressively towards the doll after seeing adults hit the Bobo doll first – some children wanted to use toy guns to hit the Bobo doll even though the adults did not behave this way Experiment- used a Bobo doll to see if children would act aggressively towards the doll after seeing adults hit the Bobo doll first – some children wanted to use toy guns to hit the Bobo doll even though the adults did not behave this way