Research Methods CASA Writing Center

ethno = peoplegraphy = writing ethnography = writing about people

"the study and systematic recording of human cultures; also: a descriptive work produced from such research" (Merriam-Webster, 2012). "a systematic study of a particular cultural group or phenomenon, based upon extensive fieldwork in one or more selected locales" (Reimer, 2011, p. 163).

"The ethnographer is interested in the socio ‑ cultural contexts and processes in which people live their lives, as well as the meaning systems which motivate them... the actors and their corresponding actions, behaviors, and beliefs are examined within the cultural and societal context in which they take place" (Whitehead, 2004, p. 15).

study of a particular group - in their natural setting, doing everyday activities, practices, processes embedding oneself into a culture to observe and describe patterns cultural interpretation (Reimer, 2011) cultural patterns or processes of a community finding the inner workings of social settings

 the data collection instrument (Reimer, 2011)  gaining the "insider" perspective  translating this perspective for outsiders "We bring our cultural selves with us wherever we go, and even with the best of intentions, an ethnographer can never see life completely through another person's eyes... the ethnographer is never able to completely write him or herself out of the ethnography" (Reimer, 2011, p. 165).

 a researcher - in and out of the field  an observer  a participant  an interviewer  an interpreter

To gain an "insider's" perspective on a community, culture, or group of individuals To develop a cultural interpretation o cultural constructions, values, norms, processes, meanings

Dogtown and Z Boys (2001) Counter Culture (2009)

Foundations in anthropology, sociology, social anthropology, cultural anthropology o an interest in observing and understanding the culture and processes of "the Other" o i.e. tribal, native, or indigenous cultures Ethnography has moved/moves beyond these foundations to explore cultures and communities in all areas of life.

As a process, ethnographic research allows the individual to observe, interact, experience, and participate in a community or culture. As a product, ethnographic research - or an ethnography - translates and offers an “insider’s” perspective on the community or culture for outsiders. This allows others to understand the community or culture more fully. Why might this be valuable?

Quantitative data can be measured deals with numbers raw data is used to construct graphs or tables fails to capture human experience Qualitative data can be observed, but not measured explores the experiences of participants descriptive data gathers information in a non- numerical form interviews, diary accounts, open- ended questionnaires, observations

Ethnographic research methods include both quantitative and qualitative research. quantitative: survey data, background research qualitative: observations, field notes, interviews, interactions, reflections

Before beginning any research project, it is important to consider what you are researching and why. What is your research question? Please refer to your instructor’s assignment guidelines and/or develop your own research question as necessary.

“The need to protect research participants is so critical that all ethnographers, even students conducting ethnographic research for a class, must abide by this code of conduct” (Reimer, 2011, p. 171).

Please ask your professor or the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for more information regarding ethical considerations in ethnographic research. Code of Conduct, American Anthropological Association (1998) Your ethnographic research should not: Harm or exploit its participants Your ethnographic research should: Seek informed consent from participants Respect the anonymity or recognition of participants

“ethnographic reconnaissance” (Wolcott, 2008, p. 187). fieldwork – researcher in “the field” researcher as data instrument observation of community data collection Compose fieldnotes through observation. Revise and add to fieldnotes through reflection. Conduct interviews (informal or structured) and/or surveys with members of the community or group. Collect site documents and/or representative artifacts of the community or group. data analysis report writing

reconnaissance: a mission to survey, explore, and obtain information exploration of a community or field site to orient oneself Visit your site and check it out – it’s okay to feel like an outsider! Wolcott (2008) argues that it allows the researcher "to make a better-informed decision as to whether or how to proceed with more thorough investigation" (p. 188).

"the field" is the natural setting of the community or culture being observed o For example, if researching the community of regular diners at a cafe, one would observe this community at the cafe. Give yourself time to observe. o It is best to return to "the field" as often as possible to gain an insider's perspective on the community and its processes, practices, and/or values. Fieldwork cannot be rushed. Don’t procrastinate! o "Certainly, the more time available for fieldwork the better" (Wolcott, 2008, p. 190).

Ethnographer as the data instrument Using your own experiences, observations, and perceptions to observe and take note of a community or culture In addition to observation and interviews, ethnographers conduct outside research to learn more about the community or culture they are researching. This helps them in the field and also in writing their ethnographic reports.

This takes time! Be sure to seek permission to observe a community. Prepare a statement of purpose to explain your reasons for being there. Return to your field site as often and as many times as possible. This will depend on the time you have available to conduct your own ethnographic research.

Participant Observation o The researcher becomes an active participant in the community while observing. o Experiential observation Non-Participant Observation o The passive observer o "fly on the wall" o The researcher does not become an active participant in the community. o Focus on observation only - no interaction

"Participant observation is founded on firsthand experience in naturally occurring events" (Wolcott, 2004, p. 49). Using all five senses to observe, experience, and absorb. Documenting these observations in field notes.

Keep a notebook with you to take notes and/or make sketches. Outsider perspective / insider perspective Each time you sit down to observe, date your notes. Some things you could consider are: Observe WHO is present – what are their roles? WHAT they are doing? WHY are they doing this? Consider the focus and purpose of your research.

“As quickly as possible, write up notes about what you learn, including first impressions, problems you anticipate, leads you might follow, analytical concepts you may later want to consider. Keep track as well of your emotional responses and information gained through all your senses, not just what you have ‘seen’” (Wolcott, 2008, p. 193).

First impressions Information gained through all your senses Problems you anticipate Leads or interests you might follow Analytical concepts i.e. discourse community theory Emotional responses (Wolcott, 2008)

Seeking permission – informed consent Using a recording device Interviews – sitting down face-to-face with an individual to discuss questions Formal – structured Q&A Informal – more like a conversation Guided by prepared questions, but flexible to discuss responses of interviewee(s)

Surveys – developing questions for participants to respond to and return to the researcher Allow for a larger response population Can offer numerical data and open-ended responses

How are people communicating? How is information gathered and/or shared? Genres – newsletters, memos, forms Media – images, web sources, videos “…texts… are reflections of shared practice, societal norms, and public relationships, [and] they are potentially rich sources of data” (Reimer, 2011, p. 168).

You will analyze the data you have collected according to the focus of your research. Return to your Research Question.

Abstract Introduction Background – Review of the Literature Informing your reader about the community or culture, its history, its construction, its importance, etc. Methods Discussing your methods of ethnographic research Results Analyzing the results Using the data you collected in your observations, interviews, site documents, etc. Discussion

Select a community or group of individuals that you will study. Develop a focus or question for your study. o i.e. What are the goals and characteristics of this discourse community? Set up a time to observe your community. o It is best to return to your field of study numerous times. Compose thorough field notes and return to reflect on them often. Interact with individuals within the community. o Seek interviews or distribute surveys. Organize your findings. Analyze your findings.

Imagine you are asked to conduct ethnographic research to learn more about the goals and values of college freshmen. Create five (5) interview questions you could ask an "insider" of this community.

Using the five (5) interview questions you created, travel to another table and interview an individual. o Be sure to take notes on their responses.

If you’d like to look at some examples of ethnographic research and reports, see the Writing About Writing textbook: Mirabelli, T. “Learning to serve: The language and literacy of food service workers” (p. 538) McCarthy, L. P. “A stranger in strange lands: A college student writing across the curriculum” (p. 667) Branick, S. “Coaches can read, too: An ethnographic study of a football coaching discourse community” (p. 557)

American Anthropological Association. (1998). Code of ethics of the American Anthropological Association. Retrieved from Reimer, J. F. (2011). Ethnography research. In S. D. Lapan, M. T. Quartaroli, & F. J. Reimer (Eds.), Qualitative research: An introduction to methods and designs (pp ). Hoboken, NJ: Jossey Bass. Wolcott, H. F. (2008). Ethnography as a way of seeing, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Alta Mira Press. Whitehead, T. L. (2004). What is ethnography? Methodological, ontological, and epistemological attributes. Cultural Ecology of Health and Change (CEHC). Retrieved from WorkingPapers/EpiOntAttrib.pdf