Lecture 7: Scientific writing

Assignment 1 Applying what we go over today and next lecture, you are to review and critique two SURF applications – do this using ‘track changes’ in a word processor Focus on suggestions and indicating possibilities for editing (e.g., “You could make this sentence more engaging by using the active voice.”; “You could cut out several unnecessary words in this sentence.”) When you do the editing, be honest but nice! Read before doing your reviews: Remember: your goal is to help the author improve their proposal

500 words only! Be written in first person [Very briefly] Discuss the relative importance of the proposed research within its discipline State the specific tasks to be accomplished during the program Define the scope and goals of the proposed research Check for spelling or syntax errors before submission Competitive applications generally include: o Research proposals that are clear, thorough, within the 500-word limit, free of errors in spelling, grammar, and syntax, and in the student's own words o Research proposals with clear, realistic goals that help the student focus and indicate that the project will lead to a substantive research experience for the student Assignment 1: Criteria You should also evaluate whether the proposal meets the guidelines (below) signed reviews to by end of February

Lecture 8: Scientific writing Homework for Feb lectures Read: de Visser et al. (1999) Diminishing returns from mutation supply in asexual populations Available on the class web page: cooperlab.org/biol4397cooperlab.org/biol4397

Aim of scientific writing is to communicate ideas After you’ve done an experiment, it is important that you communicate what you did – that’s the goal of good scientific writing This communication is much more than just writing a document that is technically correct – writing should be: o Accurate and Precise (unambiguous) o Concise o Simple o Engaging We’ll focus on scientific writing, which assumes an audience of your peers (i.e., other scientists), but guidelines apply to most writing

The aim of scientific writing is to communicate ideas Scientific writing is hard: the vast majority of good scientific writers take a long time to write even a short manuscript. Even then, self-editing is crucial: most writers will carefully go through a manuscript many (5+) times to make sure it communicates their ideas as effectively as possible Self-critique: reread everything you write and be honest and critical – are you really saying what you want to say? Would you understand the ideas you want to get across if your only source was the document you’re writing?

Edit, edit, edit… p6., Zinser, “On Writing Well” Changes made to text for a book (On Writing Well) written by a professional writer (William Zinser) – the fifth time through!

Parts of a scientific paper: Title The Title should capture the essence of the manuscript – and catch the reader’s interest Consider including the aim or conclusion of the research, the subject, and possibly the independent and dependent variables Can be “catchy” but must be precise

Parts of a scientific paper: Title The Title should capture the essence of the manuscript – and catch the reader’s interest Consider including the aim or conclusion of the research, the subject, and possibly the independent and/or dependent variables Titles from Genetics (Jan 30, 2014) – any complaints?: o Inference of the properties of the recombination process from whole bacterial genomes (what are the properties?) o The basis for evolution of DNA-binding specificity of the Aft1 transcription factor in yeasts (what is the basis?) o Hitchhiking of deleterious alleles and the cost of adaptation in partially selfing species (how big is the cost? is there even one?) o Regulation of aggression by obesity-linked genes TfAP-2 and Twz through octopamine signaling in Drosophila (passive when easy to make active: Obesity-linked genes TfAP-2 and Twz regulate aggression…)

Parts of a scientific paper: Abstract The Abstract provides a short ( words) summary of the research described in the body of the article. It should stand alone – this will be the only thing most people read of your paper It provides readers with an overview that helps them decide whether the article may be interesting to read Included in the Abstract are: i.the purpose and objectives of the experiment and why they are important ii.a brief description of the methods and approach used iii.key findings and their significance iv.significance Often this section is written last to ensure it accurately reflects the content of the paper Generally, the Abstract should not contain references or abbreviations

Parts of a scientific paper: Introduction The Introduction places your new research in the context of previous relevant studies – what is known, what is not known (focusing on the question covered in this paper) and why is it worth knowing? Each statement (except ‘common knowledge’) needs one or more references from the scientific literature to support its validity – you need to read cited works to be sure that they do support the statement you are making If your research involves testing a hypothesis (as opposed to being a descriptive study), the hypothesis should be presented and justified (how did you make the inductive conclusion that became your hypothesis?) An introduction often concludes with a brief summary of your research findings as they relate to the stated hypothesis

Parts of a scientific paper: Materials and Methods The Materials and Methods section has two main goals: o Allow other scientists to replicate your experiments – they need to know what you did o Convince readers that you performed and analyzed your experiments properly. Only then can they believe your results. It is important to think through your experiment to identify choices you’ve made that might effect results, and indicate these in your methods. For example: “We exposed bacteria to antibiotic X and measured their growth rate.” Imagine you were trying to do and analyze your experiment using only the description given in your materials and methods, could you do it? Would you have to guess what exactly was done? It’s OK to cite methods in earlier papers if you used the same techniques should include, the growth phase that the bacteria were in (they have different sensitivity to antibiotics in exponential growth vs. stationary phase), the concentration of the antibiotic used, the growth medium, the temperature,…

Parts of a scientific paper: Results The Results section describes in detail the actual experiments that were performed in a clear and well-organized narrative Aim is the be clear, concise, precise and objective. Describe results with only enough introduction and interpretation to put them in some context (e.g., what hypothesis they are relevant to) – usually 1-2 sentences are sufficient Results can be very boring – a shopping list of observations and statistical tests – you need to work hard to make it accessible to a reader Try to avoid restating methods

Parts of a scientific paper: Discussion Discussion – where the author presents an overall view of the work described in the article Main results are synthesized so the reader can see how they fit together to evaluate the original hypothesis as outlined in the Introduction Logical connections and trends in the data are presented, as are discussions of error and other possible explanations for the findings, including an analysis of whether the experimental design was adequate Results should not be restated in the Discussion section, except insofar as it is absolutely necessary to make a point (e.g., we found X, which is in contrast to an early study that found Y) Second, the goal is to help the reader link the present work with the larger body of knowledge that was portrayed in the Introduction. How do the results advance the field? What are the implications? Did you manage to fill the knowledge gap you identified in the Introduction?

Parts of a scientific paper: Figures Figures are not an afterthought – a good figure clearly conveys a great deal of information, a bad figure confuses a reader Turn off everything that you think makes a figure look “nice” (shadows, gray background, 3D, etc.) – minimize “chart junk” year

Parts of a scientific paper: Figures

Tied third worst scored question on the pre-test

My manuscript is a written record of my findings. Yes… but not only. The main (and most difficult to achieve) purpose of a manuscript is to communicate your findings. It should share your findings with other researchers and discuss what they mean in the context of other work in the field. My findings will speak for themselves. In order to effectively communicate your findings, your manuscript needs to be clearly understandable. Even if someone is an expert in your field, if your work is poorly expressed or explained, they may not understand what you did and what you found. Complex words make my writing more impressive. Readers either know these complex words (so won’t be impressed by them) or don’t (so won’t get your point – so why bother writing?). It’s much more impressive – because it is much more difficult – to use simple language to present a complex idea. Good English means only grammar and spelling. Your arguments and discussion should be presented logically and in way that puts your most important findings in places where readers naturally expect to find them. The difference between good and bad sentences is usually not of being technically right or wrong – but of whether the sentence effectively communicates your idea. Adapted from: Mythbusters

Writing – construction is important “Readers don’t just read, they interpret.” An experiment measured temperature change over time: time (min)temperature(°C) t(time)=15', T(temperature)=32°, t=0', T=25°; t=6', T=29°; t=3', T=27°; t=12', T=32°; t=9'; T=31° temperature(°C)time (min) Which presentation is the easiest to follow?

Writing… “When you write a scientific article, you should lay out your ideas in such a way that your readers can follow them easily – every new concept should flow directly from the previous material Readers expect certain pieces of information in certain positions in a sentence. Work with these expectations, and your readers will find your writing clear and convincing. Work against them, and your reader will be confused. All readers expect more or less the same things in the same places.” Adapted from

Subject-verb spacing Compare: o Bacteria, when they are grown in rich medium at room temperature and with the right nutritional supplements, die. o Bacteria die when they are grown in rich medium at room temperature and with the right nutritional supplements.

Subject-verb spacing It’s frustrating to start a sentence with a subject, then have to wait until the end to find out what it does. (Readers have short attention spans – they will skim over intervening material to get to the verb – if that material was important, you’ll have failed to communicate it. If it wasn’t, why was it there?) Compare: o Bacteria, when they are grown in rich medium at room temperature and with the right nutritional supplements, die. o Bacteria die when they are grown in rich medium at room temperature and with the right nutritional supplements. Where are the subjects and verbs in your SURF application?

End of a sentence – the stress position Compare: o Bacteria die when they are grown in rich medium at room temperature and with the right nutritional supplements. o Bacteria die when they are grown in the following conditions: rich medium, room temperature, and the right nutritional supplements.

End of a sentence – the stress position The stress position – the last part of a sentence (when the reader is warned they are there) (“A reader has reached the beginning of the stress position when she knows there is nothing left in the clause or sentence but the material presently being read.” I.e., it can be more than a single word.) Most people have a reading cadence that naturally stresses the last part of a sentence – aid readability by aligning this habit with the material you want to stress Compare: o Bacteria die when they are grown in rich medium at room temperature and with the right nutritional supplements. o Bacteria die when they are grown in the following conditions: rich medium, room temperature, and the right nutritional supplements. Stress positions serve as a guide to indicate a sentence is too long. When you want to stress more things than you have stress positions for, consider a new sentence. (Don’t try to say two things in one sentence!) signal that what follows will end the sentence

Beginning of a sentence – the topic position Beginning of sentences establish the topic and should bridge from information already given – it should provide focus, linkage and context (in other words, it’s hard to get right) A reader has a basic need to be able to fit new information into the context of previous information – making this difficult increases the amount of mental energy they expend to follow your text and leads to frustration (and poor comprehension)

Beginning of a sentence – the topic position Bacteria are usually sensitive to aminoglycoside antibiotics. Aminoglycosides are, therefore, an important component of treatment of bacterial disease. Indeed, the severity of most disease is reduced if a careful antibiotic treatment regime is followed. Bacteria are usually sensitive to aminoglycoside antibiotics. Many bacterial diseases treatments involve the use of aminoglycosides. Antibiotic treatment regimes will, if applied carefully, reduce the severity of most disease. Beginning of sentences establish the topic and should bridge from information already given – it should provide focus, linkage and context (in other words, it’s hard to get right) A reader has a basic need to be able to fit new information into the context of previous information – making this difficult increases the amount of mental energy they expend to follow your text and leads to frustration (and poor comprehension)

Beginning of a sentence – the topic position Bacteria are usually sensitive to aminoglycoside antibiotics. Aminoglycosides are, therefore, an important component of treatment of bacterial disease. Indeed, the severity of most disease is reduced if a careful antibiotic treatment regime is followed. Bacteria are usually sensitive to aminoglycoside antibiotics. Many bacterial diseases treatments involve the use of aminoglycosides. Antibiotic treatment regimes will, if applied carefully, reduce the severity of most disease. Beginning of sentences establish the topic and should bridge from information already given – it should provide focus, linkage and context (in other words, it’s hard to get right) A reader has a basic need to be able to fit new information into the context of previous information – making this difficult increases the amount of mental energy they expend to follow your text and leads to frustration (and poor comprehension)

Be active (not passive) Greene, Writing Science in Plain English Use active voice – the subject of the sentence is doing the action, not receiving it. Active voice will tend to make writing more exciting and engaging Active voice makes it obvious who did something (not just that something was done) Active voice tends to be more concise “The biologist counted the caribou.” “The caribou were counted by the biologist.” “I cooled the samples on ice, returned them to Arizona State University, and froze them until I used them.” “Samples were cooled on ice, returned to Arizona State University, and frozen until used.”

Be active (not passive) Greene, Writing Science in Plain English Use active voice – the subject of the sentence is doing the action, not receiving it. Active voice will tend to make writing more exciting and engaging Active voice makes it obvious who did something (not just that something was done) Active voice tends to be more concise “The biologist counted the caribou.” “The caribou were counted by the biologist.” “I cooled the samples on ice, returned them to Arizona State University, and froze them until I used them.” “Samples were cooled on ice, returned to Arizona State University, and frozen until used.”

Keep it simple… It’s easy to write down everything you are thinking and want to communicate – it’s hard to only write down what you need to in order to communicate Some guidelines (apply to all writing): 1. Delete unnecessary qualifiers: Example: Because a great many of the words in this sentence are basically unnecessary, it would really be a very good idea to edit somewhat for conciseness. Revision: Because many of the words in this sentence are unnecessary, we should edit it. 2. Delete unnecessary modifiers: Example: Do not try to anticipate in advance those events that will completely revolutionize society. In this example, “anticipate” implies “in advance”, and “revolutionize” implies “completely.” Revision: Do not try to anticipate revolutionary events. 3. Avoid common/unnecessary phrases: Example: In the event that going out for the purpose of eating with them cannot be avoided, it is necessary that we first go to the ATM, in light of the fact that I am out of cash. Revision: If we must go out to eat with them, we should first go to the ATM because I am out of cash.

Keep it simple… It’s easy to write down everything you are thinking and want to communicate – it’s hard to only write down what you need to in order to communicate Some guidelines (apply to all writing): 4.Omit needless words (and, indeed, whole sentences): 5.Don’t use big words when small ones will do (though one well known big word can usefully substitute for several small words): Writing Science in Plain Englishhttp:// owing to the fact thatsince (because) in spite of the fact thatthough (although) call your attention to the fact thatremind you (notify you) the question as to whetherwhether (the question whether) there is no doubt but thatno doubt (doubtless) When you are critiquing your SURF applications, how many words can you delete without altering meaning? implementput ascertainfind terminateend

"When a scientific paper has been published in a respected journal, it becomes accepted knowledge. Therefore, whenever you quote previously published work, ethics require you to treat that work with respect. You do this by using the present tense. It is correct to say, 'Streptomycin inhibits the growth of M. tuberculosis (Ref. 13).’ – this is something that is now ‘true’. "Your own present work should be referred to in the past tense. Your work is not presumed to be established knowledge until after it has been published. If you determined that the optimal growth temperature for Streptomyces everycolor was 37°C, you should say, 'S. everycolor grew best at 37°C.' "In the typical paper, you will normally go back and forth between the past and present tenses. o Most of the Abstract should be in the past tense, because you are referring to your present results. o Materials and Methods and the Results sections should be in the past tense, as you describe what you did and what you found. Refer to your own statistical analyses in the present tense (e.g., a t-test indicates [present] that bacteria grew [past] more slowly in the presence of antibiotic) o Much of the Introduction and Discussion should be in the present tense, because these sections emphasize previously established knowledge. Tenses – mix past and present, depending on context Adapted from from Day How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. Oryx.

Tool to analyze some aspects of scientific writing:

Paragraphs follow the same basic guidelines as sentences Because the material at the start – the topic position – defines the context of what is to come, it is important that each unit of discourse address only a single topic At the level of individual sentences, most writers intuitively get this right. It is unlikely that anybody would write a single sentence about two separate topics However, at the level of paragraphs, it is common to see this principle violated – many writers construct paragraphs that seem to have no clear point, or that just go on and on drifting from one topic to the next. In your own writing, make sure that every paragraph talks about exactly one specific topic If you have written a paragraph and you realize it covers more than one topic, split the paragraph in two. Repeat as necessary. Adapted from:

Example: how to edit a paragraph to increase readability The enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC) has been determined by direct measurement. dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsilyl groups to obtain solubility of the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. From isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dC:dG base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol. Adapted from: The large number of technical terms makes this paragraph hard to read – but that’s not the only problem – it also has structural issues: Who is the star of the paragraph – what is it really about? 1 st sentence: Interruption between subject [enthalpy?] and verb [measurement] 2 nd sentence: one stress position [hydrogen bonds] – but several important pieces of information So…

Example: how to edit a paragraph to increase readability The enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC) has been determined by direct measurement. dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsilyl groups to obtain solubility of the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. From isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dC:dG base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol. Adapted from: The large number of technical terms makes this paragraph hard to read – but that’s not the only problem – it also has structural issues: Who is the star of the paragraph – what is it really about? 1 st sentence: Interruption between subject [enthalpy?] and verb [measurement] 2 nd sentence: one stress position [hydrogen bonds] – but several important pieces of information So…

Example: how to edit a paragraph to increase readability The enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC) has been determined by direct measurement. dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsilyl groups to obtain solubility of the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. From isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dC:dG base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol. Adapted from: 1 st sentence: reorganize to bring subject and verb together, stress “dG” and “dC” (the important bits of new information), and rephrase in the active voice 2 nd sentence: reorganize to bring “dG” and “dC” into the topic position 2 nd sentence: “triisopropylsilyl groups” is new information so gets the stress position – use as a topic (old information) in a new clause that creates a second stress position for “hydrogen bonds” 2 nd sentence: “both” serves to make the reader aware that two terms will be introduced Is the paragraph OK now? We have directly measured the enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC). dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsilyl groups; these groups serve both to solubilize the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. From isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dC:dG base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol.

Example: how to edit a paragraph to increase readability Adapted from: Now that we can follow the paragraph, we realize it contains a logical gap: the two effects that are stressed in the second sentence (triisopropylsilyl groups and hydrogen bonds) aren’t mentioned in the 3 rd sentence Why were we told about a derivatization that prevents hydrogen bond formation between ribose hydroxyl groups when we weren’t told why this was relevant to the main point of the paragraph – the enthalpy measurement? We have directly measured the enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC). dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsilyl groups; these groups serve both to solubilize the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. ???????????? From isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dC:dG base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol.

Example: how to edit a paragraph to increase readability Adapted from: Now that we can follow the paragraph, we realize it contains a logical gap: the two effects that are stressed in the second sentence (triisopropylsilyl groups and hydrogen bonds) aren’t mentioned in the 3 rd sentence Why were we told about a derivatization that prevents hydrogen bond formation between ribose hydroxyl groups when we weren’t told why this was relevant to the main point of the paragraph – the enthalpy measurement? One fix (what a reader would have to fill in by themselves…) We have directly measured the enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC). dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsilyl groups; these groups serve both to solubilize the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. ???????????? From isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dC:dG base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol. We have directly measured the enthalpy of hydrogen bond formation between the nucleoside bases 2'deoxyguanosine (dG) and 2'deoxycytidine (dC). dG and dC were derivatized at the 5' and 3' hydroxyls with triisopropylsiyl groups; these groups serve both to solubilize the nucleosides in non-aqueous solvents and to prevent the ribose hydroxyls from forming hydrogen bonds. Consequently, when the derivatized nucleosides are dissolved in non- aqueous solvents, hydrogen bonds form almost exclusively between the bases. Since the interbase hydrogen bonds are the only bonds to form upon mixing, their enthalpy of formation can be determined directly by measuring the enthalpy of mixing. From our isoperibolic titration measurements, the enthalpy of dG:dC base pair formation is -6.65±0.32 kcal/mol.

Transcription of the 5S RNA genes in the egg extract is TFIIIA-dependent. This is surprising, because the concentration of TFIIIA is the same as in the oocyte nuclear extract. The other transcription factors and RNA polymerase III are presumed to be in excess over available TFIIIA, because tRNA genes are transcribed in the egg extract. The addition of egg extract to the oocyte nuclear extract has two effects on transcription efficiency. First, there is a general inhibition of transcription that can be alleviated in part by supplementation with high concentrations of RNA polymerase III. Second, egg extract destabilizes transcription complexes formed with oocyte but not somatic 5S RNA genes. Your turn: edit this paragraph to increase readability Ask: whose ‘story’ is this (what should occupy the topic position where possible)? Work on links between sentences Are there any logical gaps? Adapted from:

Your turn: edit this paragraph to increase readability Adapted from: Need to decide on a focus – whose story is being told (good candidates: “egg extract” and “TFIIIA”) A comparison is implied between sentence 1 and 2 (“This is surprising, [in light of this other observation]”) – but is not made clear. Is 5S transcription not TFIIIA limited in the oocyte? A comparison is implied between sentences 1 and 3: How does this observation of tRNA transcription tell us that RNA pol III and other factors are not limiting? (tRNA genes require RNA pol III, but not TFIIIA – not exactly common knowledge) Transcription of the 5S RNA genes in the egg extract is TFIIIA-dependent. This is surprising, because the concentration of TFIIIA is the same as in the oocyte nuclear extract. The other transcription factors and RNA polymerase III are presumed to be in excess over available TFIIIA, because tRNA genes are transcribed in the egg extract. The addition of egg extract to the oocyte nuclear extract has two effects on transcription efficiency. First, there is a general inhibition of transcription that can be alleviated in part by supplementation with high concentrations of RNA polymerase III. Second, egg extract destabilizes transcription complexes formed with oocyte but not somatic 5S RNA genes.

Your turn: edit this paragraph to increase readability Adapted from: Fourth sentence: sounds like a hypothesis is being tested – though the hypothesis and the prediction are not made clear. Why is this experiment being done? Transcription of the 5S RNA genes in the egg extract is TFIIIA-dependent. This is surprising, because the concentration of TFIIIA is the same as in the oocyte nuclear extract. The other transcription factors and RNA polymerase III are presumed to be in excess over available TFIIIA, because tRNA genes are transcribed in the egg extract. The addition of egg extract to the oocyte nuclear extract has two effects on transcription efficiency. First, there is a general inhibition of transcription that can be alleviated in part by supplementation with high concentrations of RNA polymerase III. Second, egg extract destabilizes transcription complexes formed with oocyte but not somatic 5S RNA genes.

Your turn: edit this paragraph to increase readability Adapted from: Topic positions are standardized; Comparisons between sentences 1 and 2, and 1 and 3 [basis of tRNA vs. 5S transcription comparison] are clarified Attempt to present the hypothesis and its predictions that motivate the experiments described in the last part of the paragraph As critical scientific readers, we would like to concentrate on whether experiments address hypotheses. We cannot do this if we are left in doubt as to what those hypotheses are—and we will be if we are using most of our energy to discern the structure of the prose rather than its substance. We read bad writing a sentence at a time, so can’t see arguments that are developed over a paragraph. In the egg extract, the availability of TFIIIA limits transcription of the 5S RNA genes. This is surprising because the same concentration of TFIIIA does not limit transcription in the oocyte nuclear extract. In the egg extract, transcription is not limited by RNA polymerase III because transcription of tRNA genes, which requires RNA polymerase III but not TFIIIA, indicates that it is in excess over available TFIIIA. [To test the possibility that egg extract contains factors that limit TFIIIA activity we mixed it with oocyte extract and measured the effect of this mixture on gene transcription. If the egg extract contains a factor that limits TFIIIA activity, we expect that…] When added to the oocyte nuclear extract, the egg extract affected the efficiency of transcription in two ways. First, it inhibited transcription generally; this inhibition could be alleviated in part by supplementing the mixture with high concentrations of RNA polymerase III. Second, the egg extract destabilized transcription complexes formed by oocyte but not by somatic 5S genes. Transcription of the 5S RNA genes in the egg extract is TFIIIA-dependent. This is surprising, because the concentration of TFIIIA is the same as in the oocyte nuclear extract. The other transcription factors and RNA polymerase III are presumed to be in excess over available TFIIIA, because tRNA genes are transcribed in the egg extract. The addition of egg extract to the oocyte nuclear extract has two effects on transcription efficiency. First, there is a general inhibition of transcription that can be alleviated in part by supplementation with high concentrations of RNA polymerase III. Second, egg extract destabilizes transcription complexes formed with oocyte but not somatic 5S RNA genes.

Summary – general pointers for good writing Orwell's Five Rules: 1.Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print 2.Never use a long word where a short one will do. 3.If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. 4.Never use the passive voice when you can use the active 5.Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent. [Obviously, this rule is relaxed for scientific writing – even so, be aware that your readers won’t all have the specialist language that you do!] 6.Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous. Orwell, "Politics and the English Language”

And finally, again…proofread your work (more than once!) A lot of the documents that students hand in to me look like they haven’t been self-edited When I ask whether the student actually took the time to edit the document, the answer is usually “no.” Don’t be that student! Proof-read your documents carefully before giving them to somebody else. Don't rely on others to find your writing mistakes, (at least try to) find them yourself.”

A winning SOP ( 1.html) "I believe in everything until it's disproved. So I believe in fairies, the myths, dragons. It all exists, even if it's in your mind. Who's to say that dreams and nightmares aren't as real as the here and now? -----John Lennon I am open-minded, just like John Lennon, and really want to explore some of these so-called "myths" by pursuing a graduate degree at your prestigious institution. I believe your joint Anthropology-Herpetology graduate program will nourish my efforts to prove the Neanderthal-gecko connection. This hypothesis has been cherished by me since 2nd grade, when Mrs Lewis first introduced me to the different kinds of geckos. My first experiments on this topic earned me a "Moderately Commended" at our school science fair, and really encouraged me to broaden my views. This led me to experiments in plants. As Albert Einstein said "A table, a chair, a bowl of fruit and a violin; what else does a man need to be happy?". The great man's insight sparked my curiosity and my next science fair project (in high school) was about whether gooseberries would ripen quicker if I got my little brother Ernie to play Vivaldi's "The Four Seasons" to them. Unfortunately, I didn't get any awards for this project but this disappointment has taught me how to overcome great obstacles and persist in my scientific career. As somebody said, "What doesn't kill you makes you stronger". My most recent work experience has been great preparation for graduate school. I wasn't so good at making the cappuccinos so I was promoted to stacking boxes of supplies in the back of the shop, which has really improved my quantitative and spatial skills. I had to work a lot of hours at this job so my grades weren't so good for the last couple of semesters, but I've always believed that you can't really see the potential in someone based on their grades alone. My greatest role model in science, Leonard Nimoy, didn't make his Hollywood debut until age 20, so he was clearly a late bloomer just like me. Naomi Ward

SOP Previous SOP has the following essential awesome elements: 1)an absurd quotation that is supposed to be deep and that is used to explain the applicant's reason for being interested in Science (or whatever); 2)obsequious statements and adjectives ('prestigious institution'); 3)mention of childhood (e.g., an important elementary school teacher; a relative etc.; special bonus points for mentioning a science fair); 4)mention of famous scientists (Albert Einstein is of course a particularly good choice); 5)unintentional mention of reasons why the applicant might actually be a loser as a person and a scientist; 6)random cultural references (Vivaldi?)(extra bonus points for Leonard Nimoy). *Competition was to find the worst SOP

So, what does make a good SOP Be specific! Give concrete examples, not vague generalizations. Emotional reasons as to why you “know” medical school is for you are OK – but realize that 50% of applications will also be from people that “have wanted to be a doctor since I was 5 and my neighbor broke a leg and I realized that I wanted to be able to help people (as I slung them over my shoulder and took them to the emergency room).” Your challenge is to take an experience that was meaningful to you, and present it in a way that is meaningful to the admission committee. E.g., “…this experience inspired me to [do something concrete]” Try to be memorable – but stay professional and don’t try to be clever. What are your genuinely notable achievements/experiences relevant to the application? Be specific! (“I’ve placed in the top three of the state science fair in each of the last three years with projects examining […]” not “I’ve always had a calling for science, exemplified by my love of science fairs.”) Writing is important! Admission committee members are trying to get a sense of who you are as a person and your suitability for their program. Almost certainly, the ability to write well will be a plus – your statement is the most direct evidence that you can do this. There are many online guides “How to write the perfect SOP” – read, but don’t follow mindlessly Get feedback – ask people if they find your statement to be a convincing argument for your admission

So, what does make a good SOP The admissions committee want specifics: o What are you interested in studying? – don’t be too specific (“I want to study the effect of streptomycin on Pseudomonas.” better to say “I want to study the effect of toxins on microorganisms.”) o Relevant experience – anything that they can use to evaluate your potential for doing research (if you’ve done research and been productive as an undergraduate, they can extrapolate to you being a productive grad student) o Motivation – why do you want to get a MD/PhD etc.? Convince the committee that you have a mature grasp of the relevant career path (so that you won’t have an epiphany half way through your degree that it is not for you because you’re not going to be a multi-millionaire at the other end). o Why this institution? Be specific: why do you think this institution is a good fit for you? Prove that you’ve done some homework – is there a lot of research being done in the area you want to enter? Who does it? o Accentuate the positive and address the negative – if there is some aspect of your application package that you can explain (“I have bad grades in my third semester because I was in a coma for my final exams.”) without making it sound like an excuse, consider doing that.