Data Collection we often use irrelevant information to make judgments seek to obtain comprehensive information about a student obtain all relevant information on which to make informal designs we are often tempted to make designs on what students say, not what they do

cannot trust intuition for instructional and behavioral objectives must have sound data Choosing a System 1.Frequency 2.Rate 3.Duration 4.Latency

5. Topography 6. Force 7. Locus Anecdotal Recording(pp100) anecdotal recording is a written narrative describing critical incidents (like a diary) focus is on specific types of events may be used for 4 major purposes:

1. can confirm the existence of a hypothesized problem the entries note both the frequency in which they occur and the intensity & severity of the reactions 2. they can reveal the conditions that provoke the or cause the problem behavior time of day, professional responsible, peers present, instructional demands, other factor

3. may indicate events that reinforce or punish the the problem behavior 4. may help identify alternative positive social behaviors that may be used to replace disruptive response note book is kept handy and a narrative is written when ever behavior occurs narrative includes objective description of the reaction, time & place, professionals & peers involved, significant events surround

important the recording be accomplished during or immediately after the reaction should be factual & objective should only report discrete details of the reaction subjective opinions should be clearly marked or omitted may use form, with headings

Antecedent Behavior Consequences (ABC) Recording another method of structuring anecdotal accounts most directly useful for obtaining diagnostic information prior to constructing intervention program specific targeted behaviors are identified, antecedents and consequences are are described in relationship to the targeted behavior

ABC is used to observe the student all or large portion of the day (math class, recess, lunch, unstructured time) depends on the scope of the intervention program may involve parents in ABC recording if intent is to extend intervention into community setting may be able to teach adaptive students to record their own behaviors (intervention)

Frequency and Rate Recording may be most useful and least time consuming performance levels are determined by tallying and counting each occurrence of a behavior over a specified time period every time a behavior occurs (positive or negative) a tally is marked frequency is appropriate when beginning & ending of behavior is easily discernible

frequency recording also requires that behavior has relatively consistent duration tantrums, aggressive episode - answers, ? frequency recordings made from one day to the next may not be comparable other conditions must be the same (swearing) convert to rate of response, divide number of occurrences by time may need mechanical assistance

Recording Permanent Products(pp103) most efficient, yet reliable methods of monitoring student behavior self-care skills can easily be recorded by monitoring the permanent results hands clean, hair combed, nails trimmed on-task behavior can be recorded by quantity & quality of work actually completed

can be very simple or complex assembly & packaging, count products students writing, more complex Task Analysis Recording task analysis is a procedure for reducing complex behaviors into component parts for the purpose of systematized instruction may include forward or backward chaining

Instruct first component of skill until mastery, then proceed to next skill quality and effectiveness depends on the use of continuous recording of student performance introducing new skills too soon will likely produce frustration delaying introduction will likely lead to boredom

4 levels if prompts self initiated verbal modeling physical use least intrusive at all times complex recording - level of prompt needed less complex - only record was or was not performed

Summarized in a number of ways when prompt levels recorded: report the average prompt level of each session when reporting only independent performances: may report the averaged number of sub-skills performed successfully each day has less diagnostic information one trial per class period vs. multiple trials

Duration and Latency Recording(pp128) Duration Recording is used to monitor increases or decreases in the amount of time an individual spends engaged in a response only when when targeted behavior has very discrete and easily identified beginning and end ( aggressive behavior, fits) episodes varied in length

Latency recording is time elapsed between a specific event and a student response a directive and student compliance must have clearly identifiable signal and start to response of all methods, most difficult to sue must pay attention to behavior and time may need to use alternative methods

Interval Recording (pp117) may be more efficient alternative to latency recording can also be use when discrete start and stop times and varies in length involves breaking school day into brief time periods (from 10 seconds -60 minutes) often not convenient to monitor all day, collect during brief periods throughout day

+ signs indicate occurrence of behavior two approaches; whole-interval recording- noting if the targeted response is occurs throughout the interval (entire time) Partial-interval recording - target response occurs anytime during interval (once ) time on task and time on task each interval

Several critical judgments needed: 1. Identify targeted behavior, clear and complete descriptions 2. Whether to observe a long or short period- the longer the more accurate- highly variable responses 3. Brief or long intervals during the observation period ( seconds) the longer the less sensitive to monitoring

4. Consider using noncontiguous observational control observe, score, observe, score 5. Observe for many periods or few periods each day large number of periods dispersed throughout provides greater sensitivity use few periods as possible while retaining sensitivity

Time Sampling closely related to interval recording same recording sheet can be used break period into equal intervals only record if behavior is present at end of the interval can be less accurate or more accurate adjust intervals

Technology in Recording micro-computer programs - reliable - keyboard skills can be used to record data for clerical skills, stores data video camera can be used to accurately perform direct observation helps correct unexpected deficiencies in an observation system

Stop action allows for tallies, note duration's, interval markings fast forward allows for efficiencies Reliability (pp132) several sources of errors 1. expectancy error - tendency of teachers to identify anticipated changes regardless whether they actually occur

May result from changing standards in defining or identifying the targeted behavior may lessen but not change may not pay as much attention as closely 2. Complexity or difficulties inherent in applying the observational system - the more students and responses observed at one time, the greater chance for error

The more judgment needed, more room for error (mad at others vs. hitting) 3. Observer drift - gradual change in the stringency with which the targeted behavior is identified may result from a change in your expectations as data collections proceed varying levels of attention to process observation reveals improvement- instead - change in observations

General recommendations: 1. Response definitions should be clear 2. Recording procedures should be as simple and practical as possible 3. Observers should be trained in the observation system 4. Observers should be evaluated periodically to determine actual reliability

Procedures for Evaluating Reliability interobserver agreement - extent to which independent individuals agree on the occurrence or duration of a specific behavior 1. Reliability of Frequency and Rate Data: two people independently observing at same time 12/14=.86 (smaller frequency / larger frequency)

2. Reliability of Permanent Product Data: collect product, two people evaluate with same set of criteria, smaller / larger number 3. Reliability of Task Analysis: two people observe independently rate of agreement is established by the number of sub-skills in the task sequence which the two observes agree Smaller/larger number

Duration and Latency Recording: shorter time divided by longer time reported by two independent observers Interval Recording and Time Sampling: occurrence of the two observers both indicating behavior has occurred, divided by the total number of intervals agreements/all intervals to be considered reliable-should exceed.80