The Split From Peaceful Protest to Black Power

Overview of Early Civil Rights Movement Focus on ending “Jim Crow” in the South – Desegregation, Voting Rights, Civil Rights for Southern Blacks Court challenges to Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) by NAACP throughout first half of 20 th century Formation of: –CORE –SCLC –SNCC Montgomery Bus Boycott Sit-Ins Freedom Riders Integration of public schools & universities Protest Marches (DC, Selma) Voter Registration Drives Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (1954) –Supreme courts rules against “separate but equal” –Desegregation of Schools Organization of the Civil Rights Movement –Martin Luther King, Jr. leader of movement –Philosophy of civil disobedience and “militant non-violence” Southern white reaction: mass arrests, police brutality, white mob violence, bombings, murders & assassinations National TV coverage  Federal Intervention –Marshals, US soldiers sent into South –Civil Rights Act 1964 –Voting Rights Act 1965 Martin Luther King wins 1964 Nobel Peace Prize

Why a Split? Civil Rights movement had been successful at ending Jim Crow in the mostly rural South 70% of black population lived in metropolitan areas (cities) –1916 to 1970: over 6 million black people moved north –1940 to 1960: Chicago's black population grew from 278,000 to 813,000 –Central-city ghettos were bypassed by post-war prosperity Widespread employment discrimination, crime, lack of police Forced to live in overcrowded slums or into public-housing high rises Urban blacks grew very disillusioned with life in the north Non-violent tactics that succeeded in the rural South did not readily worked in northern cities Some questioned the nonviolent approach—was it really working? –Still much injustice and violence –Some African Americans believed that nonviolence and integration within white society wouldn’t work, prejudice was too deep

James Baldwin Author of over two dozen novels and essays The Fire Next Time (1963) –Wrote that suffering and oppression set African Americans apart, but also made them stronger –African Americans were angry and tired of promises

Black Nationalism Black Nationalism – a belief in the separate identify and racial unity of the African American community Nation of Islam –founded by Elijah Muhammad. –Believed the enemy of the Nation of Islam was white society –Believed in taking no political action

Malcolm X Born Malcolm Little –Excellent jr. high school student, but with limited opportunities he turned to crime Sentenced to 7 years in jail in Boston for burglary –took advantage of prison education system In prison he joined Nation of Islam (aka the Black Muslims) –Changed name to Malcolm X –X replaced the slave-name he inherited –Believed white society was oppressive –Preached black separation from white society and self-help –Very charismatic, forceful speaker

Malcolm X & Non-Integration Malcolm X disagreed w/ the tactics and goals of the early civil rights movement –Called for the complete separation of African Americans from white people –Proposed creating a separate country for black people until African Americans could return to Africa –Rejected the strategy of nonviolence –Taught that black people should use any necessary means of self-defense to protect themselves Civil rights organizations denounced Malcolm X an irresponsible extremist –Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement –He described its leaders as "stooges" for the white establishment and said that Martin Luther King, Jr. was a "chump" –Called March on Washington “Farce of Washington”

Non-integration (continued) Malcolm X's speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, generally African Americans who lived in the Northern and Western cities tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality, and respect –Many blacks felt that he expressed their complaints better than the civil rights movement did. Eventually Malcolm X came to disagree with Elijah Muhammad on many things, especially lack of political action –Left the Nation of Islam to form his own religious organization, Muslim Mosque, Inc.

Malcolm X’s Assassination After a pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) and talking with African Muslims, Malcolm X changed his view on the civil rights movement –He was ready to work with other civil rights leaders and white Americans on some issues February 21, 1965 shot to death at a rally in Manhattan NY –3 members of Nation of Islam charged with his murder

Black Power Stokely Carmichael –Member of SNCC –Heard Malcolm X’s message –Rose to SNCC leadership and the group became more militant –After being jailed & beaten for participating in demonstrations, he was tired of nonviolence Encouraged SNCC members to carry guns for self-defense Wanted to make the group exclusively black, rejecting all white activists.

The Split with SNCC The March Against Fear, June, Greenwood, Mississippi, Carmichael was arrested; took the speaker's platform and delivered his famous "Black Power" speech -Called on African Americans to unite, recognize their heritage and build a sense of community -Blacks should define their own goals, lead their own organizations, and support those organizations. -SNCC's "Black Power" slogan was now competing with SCLC's "Freedom Now" slogan. -MLK had left for Chicago to organize the open housing marches, returned to to find that the civil rights movements' internal divisions between the old guard and new guard had gone public. -King’s followers were singing “We Shall Overcome” -Carmichael’s followers over-sang them with “We Shall Overrun”

Black Panthers Formed by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton –Wanted African Americans to lead their own communities –Demanded that the federal government rebuild the nation’s ghettos to make up for years of neglect –Newton followed words of Mao Zedong, “Power flows from the barrel of a gun” Gave rise to the “Black is Beautiful” slogan

The Split Early Civil Rights Movement ___________________ _____________________________________________ NAACP SCLC CORE –Moderate organizations –Sought desegregation and equal rights –Belief in nonviolent protest; court cases, marches, sit-ins –Civil disobedience Later Civil Rights Movement _____________________________________________ SNCC Nation of Islam Black Panthers –Emphasis on “Black Nationalism” –Did not agree with integration with white society, separatist –Self-sufficiency for black community –Confrontational with police

Segregation De jure segregation (“Segregation of the day”) –Racial separation created by law –Early civil rights movement focused battles on this De facto segregation (“Segregation by fact”) –Separation caused by poverty, mortgage discrimination; “racial steering” restricted blacks to certain neighborhoods –“Redlining” – no services, supermarkets, banks, jobs –Later civil rights movement concentrated on this Magenta = +50% Black Boston MA Los Angeles CA

Race Riots , dozens of race riots broke out in black urban neighborhoods, mostly in northern & western cities –African Americans were frustrated, kept out of well-paying jobs, job training programs, and suburban housing –Inner-city schools were run-down & inadequate –Police officers were viewed as dangerous oppressors rather than upholders of justice –Many riots began after an arrest or incident of police brutality / shooting of an African American –“Violent urban renewal”

MLK after the split 1966 – had begun to focus on housing discrimination in Chicago when split occurred Opposed Vietnam War –Saw a "cruel irony" of American blacks fighting, dying for a country which treated them as second class citizens Poor People's Campaign, 1968 –King / SCLC called on government to invest in rebuilding America's cities –Felt Congress had "hostility to the poor" by spending $ on the war rather than on urban blight

Assassination March 29, King went to Memphis, TN to support black sanitation workers on strike for higher wages and better treatment April 4 - King shot and killed as he stood on his motel's second floor balcony King’s assassination led to a nationwide wave of riots in Washington DC, Chicago, Baltimore, Louisville, Kansas City, and dozens of other cities

Legacy of Civil Rights Movement –Civil Rights Act 1964 – ended much discrimination for blacks and women –Voting Rights Act 1965 – African Americans vote & hold office without restrictions Number of African American elected officials rose by 88% –Civil Rights Act 1968 – Segregation made illegal aka Fair Housing Act –Martin Luther King, Jr. Day –Gave rise to many other protest movements in the late 1960s - early 1970s