History of Science History of Philosophy Faghrie Mitchell

What is History? What is Science? What is Philosophy?

What is History?

What is Science?

What is Philosophy?

History? Science? Philosophy? Curiosity?  Almost in the beginning was curiosity. Asimov’s New Guide to Science (Asimov 1987)

Early Man: Curiosity  Science CURIOSITY EXPLORATION DISCOVERY SCIENCE HISTORYHISTORY

Ancient Egypt: Curiosity  Science Osprey

Ancient Egypt: Evolution of the Pyramids Djoser BC Step Pyramid Saqqara, Egypt Djoser BC Snefru BC Cheops/Khufu BC

Ancient Egypt: Evolution of the Pyramids Snefru BC Intermediate Pyramid Maidum, Egypt Djoser BC Snefru BC Cheops/Khufu BC

Ancient Egypt: Evolution of the Pyramids Cheops/Khufu BC Smooth Pyramids Giza, Egypt Djoser BC Snefru BC Cheops/Khufu BC

Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids? Ref: Shaw (2003) Djoser Step BC Snefru Intermediate BC Cheops/Khufu Smooth BC  Did the ancient Egyptians have science  To build a pyramid you need to have knowledge and skills about stone and rock  E.g. how much stone, how many men to cut and move the stone, etc (quantity surveying)  E.g. how do I find good quality stone, how do I move the stone (geology and engineering (mathematics))  Evolution of pyramids is an example of the evolution of ancient Egyptian science

Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids? Images: Djoser Step BC Snefru Intermediate BC Cheops/Khufu Smooth BC  Did the ancient Egyptians have evolving science  Ancient Egyptians had to improve their building techniques going from Step to Intermediate to Smooth pyramid (increasing difficulty and challenge of building a smooth pyramid)  The Intermediate pyramid at Maidum could be seen as a prototype pyramid  The Maidum pyramid is speculated to have been either abandoned, or to have collapsed because of the slope of the pyramid  The lessons learnt from this pyramid and previous pyramids were: (1) to build on rock instead of sand and (2) to tilt the stone blocks inward to stabilise the pyramid (see next slide)

Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids? Snefru Intermediate BC Cheops/Khufu Smooth BC

Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids? Ref:  Did the ancient Egyptians have science  Did the ancient Egyptians have evolving science  Did the ancient Egyptians have philosophy of science ???  So you do not need to have PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE to have SCIENCE? YES and NO

Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids? Ref:  So you do not need to have PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE to have SCIENCE? YES and NO SCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA can SCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA SCIENCE can

Why show the Evolution of the Pyramids? Ref:  Conversely, you also have three similar paths, leading to NONSCIENCE, instead of SCIENCE NONSCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA can NONSCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA NONSCIENCE can

Ancient Egyptian Medicine Ref:  The Evolution of pyramids serve to show that the ancient Egyptians had SCIENCE. I will now show a clearer example, to show ancient Egyptian SCIENCE and NONSCIENCE MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA SCIENCE can NONSCIENCE can Example: Ancient Egyptian Medicine

Ancient Egyptian Medicine Ref: Wikipedia, Crystalinkswww.nyu.edu  Example: Ancient Egyptian Medicine  Some of the oldest scientific artefacts  Edwin Smith papyrus (c 1600BC), 22 pages which deals mainly with the treatment of wounds  Ebers papyrus (c1550BC), 110 pages which contains 700 magical formulas and remedies Wikipedia

Ancient Egyptian Medicine Ref:Wikipedia  Out of the Edwin Smith and the Ebers Papyruses, one can draw examples of SCIENCE and NONSCIENCE (of which I will list only a few) SCIENCE NONSCIENCE  Use of ox liver, to treat night blindness ( (  Use of honey as antibiotic on open wounds ( ) ( )  Half an onion and the froth of beer as a remedy against death  Use of lettuce or castor oil for alopecia

Impression of Ancient Egyptians Ref:Robinson  So, they got some right, some wrong. Pretty impressive though to have a structure (Giza pyramid) still standing after more than 4,000 years (c2500BC-2000AD)  Coming back to the earlier point: There is no evidence available to say that the ancient Egyptians had a philosophy of science.  So how could they establish themselves one of the great ancient civilisations?  A civilisation, like the ancient Egytians, endures and maintains itself because it: (1) solves practical problems (feeding and defending its people) and (2) puts in place a form of government able to preserve it.  So, science and governance, not philosophy, are needed to have a developed culture or civilisation.

Impression of Ancient Egyptians Ref:epnet  A more important point relates to: “So, they got some right, some wrong.”  How do we maximise right and minimize wrong?  Or rather, How do we maximise SCIENCE and minimise NONSCIENCE?

Summary of section on ancient Egyptians Ref:  The two points made in the preceding slides, effectively summarise this section  I have covered the first path so far (striked out). I will combine the second and third paths, and discuss them as if they are one SCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA can SCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA SCIENCE can

What is Philosophy? RefRobinson:  How do we maximise right and minimize wrong?  Or rather, How do we maximise SCIENCE and minimise NONSCIENCE?  Just by asking these questions we are asking philosophical questions. We are also answering what philosophy is.  “So what is philosophy anyway? Philosophy is not there to solve practical problems, problems of society or individual. Rather philosophy tests our most fundamental beliefs, values and convictions that we have, and to test them for the purpose of getting them right. This testing is in the form of asking critical questions, of debating, which is the central aspect of the philosophy. Philosophy is the love of wisdom. The love of getting to the right answer using debate.” (Daniel Robinson, Georgetown University).

What is Philosophy of Science? RefRobinson:  Understanding philosophy can be simplified by asking two simple questions, namely: 1. What is good, what is bad? 2. What is right, what is wrong?  The first question relates to human behaviour, specifically, for example, ideas on virtue, morals and ethics. BROAD STATEMENT: Scientists are less interested in this.  The second question relates specifically to ideas on logic and reason, and perception and reality. BROAD STATEMENT: Scientists are more interested in this.  So even though we can say that “…Philosophy is not there to solve practical problems, …”, it does not mean that we cannot use philosophical thought to help us solve scientific or practical problems.

The Age of Mythology Wikipedia: Thalus of Miletus  Prior to the establishment of the first Greek school of thought by Thales of Miletus (c BC), the Greeks looked only towards Olympia (heaven) and the gods for explanations relating to their world  Thales theorem: An inscribed angle in an semicircle is a right angle  Also predicted an eclipse would happen in 585BC which actually occurred Wolfram

The Age of Mythology  The role of the gods in the thinking of the ancient Greeks is illustrated in the epic by Homer (c. 7 th century BC), called the Iliad  The Iliad is a story which is believed to combine myth (fiction) and ancient Greek history, and is supposed to have happened in the 12 th century (The films Helen of Troy and Troy is based on this story) Wikipedia  The Iliad starts off with the Greek gods Zeus and Poseidon who both desire the sea-nymph, Thetis  They become afraid of pursuing Thetis when it is prophesized that any future son of Thetis wil be greater than his father; so they back off

The Age of Mythology RefRobinson:  They allow Thetis to marry the mortal king, Peleus  At the wedding, you have gods, goddesses, demi-gods and mortals in attendance  A dispute arise as to who is the most beautiful goddess. The gods decide that the young Trojan prince, Paris, must decide  He opts for the goddess, Aphrodite, because she promises him the most beautiful woman in the world, which is Helen Amazon.com

The Age of Mythology RefRobinson:  Some time later, Paris meets Helen, but unfortunately finds her to be married to Melenaus, a Spartan prince  Helen had many suitors before marriage, each of which who made a pledge to her father to protect Helen and her future husband  So with Helen’s abduction, they set off to Troy Amazon.com

The Rise of Philosophy Wikipedia: 12 Gods of Olympus  The Iliad clearly illustrates the fickle, emotional, and unpredictable nature of the gods  It also illustrate that the gods interfere with mortals’ lives, but they remain mainly interested in their own needs  The ancient Greeks felt; there was a distance between Olympia (Heaven) and Athenia (Earth)  However, this does not necessarily mean that they started to discard their religion, Olympianism It means that they had to deal with this dualism, each in their own way for example Plato stated: The Earth is imperfect and changeable, the heavens were perfect and immutable

The Rise of Philosophy Wikipedia: Plato  The Greek philosophers, Plato ( BC) and Aristotle ( BC), were the first Greek philosophers to adequately deal with questions about their world, their beliefs and their reality – to confront dualism Wikipedia: Aristotle

The Rise of Philosophy Wikipedia: Raphael’s School of Athens;

The Rise of Philosophy RefRobinson:  Plato (on the left) pointing upwards: he is interested in the forms, universals, generals  Aristotle (on the right): he is interested in particulars, specifics Wikipedia: Raphael; Wikipedia: Raphael

The Rise of Philosophy: PLATO Ref:fWikipedia  Knowledge is that which is true and that which is believed  1. Something can be true, but is not believed e.g. some truth about our universe which has not been discovered yet 2. Something can be believed, but is not true e.g. urban legends, myths, conspiracy theories Wikipedia Plato has a top-down perspective on knowledge, he favours deductive reasoning

The Rise of Philosophy: ARISTOTLE RefRobinson:  Aristotle ( BC) differed from Plato in that he had favoured a bottom-up approach, and preferred empiricism over deduction  Aristotle more interested in specifics, so he writes the Physics, and then the Metaphysics and later on Historia Animalium  The Historia Animalium was written rather hastily, but contains lenghthy descriptions of countless species of fish, shellfish, and other, animals and their anatomies.

The Rise of Philosophy RefRobinson:  The Physics is collection of lessons on theoretical, methodological, philosophical concerns, rather than physical theories or contents of particular investigations.  It sets the bases for scientists to study the world subject to change, and change, or movement, or motion (kinesis) is one of the chief topics of the work.  The Metaphysics is so named because it came after the Physics. It is divided into three parts (1) ontology, (2) theology and (3) universal science.  Ontology is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of being'. Theology refers to the study of God (or the gods). Universal science is supposed to be the study of so- called first principles, which underlie all other inquiries.

Plato and Aristotle: Two Perspectives RefRobinson: PlatoAristotle “Top down” approach One starts with an idea Theory laden observation Rational tradition DEDUCTIVE REASONING Bottom up approach Drawing conclusions from observation Empirical tradition INDUCTIVE REASONING

Conclusion on Ancient Greek Philosophy Ref:  With Plato and Aristotle, the foundations for deductive and inductive reasoning was put in place, methods of thinking which could maximise science and minimise nonscience  However, this was just a start on an otherwise long road MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA can SCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can MYTHOLOGY RELIGION DOGMA can NONSCIENCE PHILOSOPHY can

The Rise of the Roman Empire Ref:  The Roman Empire started to emerge in 282BC, after the Etruscans were defeated at the Battle of Populonia, and the defeat of the Greek colony at Tarentum  Rome established colonies in strategic areas, which led to the demise of the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires (c 2 nd century BC)  Rome was the superpower, they controlled the Mediterranean Sea wps.ablongman.com

The Rise of the Roman Empire Ref:  Greek culture survived, because Rome took it as its own  However, in general, the Romans did not have the same penchant for the dialectic tradition (debate) and philosophy lost its appeal  Rome was more interested in conquest wps.ablongman.com

The Rise of the Roman Empire wps.ablongman.com c BC Expansion under Julius Caesar CE Height of Roman Power CE The Empire under pressure Pull back from Britain, Dacia and Mesopotamia

The Decline of the Roman Empire c CE Barbarian migrations and invasions CE Byzantium Empire under Justinian wps.ablongman.com c CE Rise of Islam

Preservation of Scholarship wps.ablongman.com  9 th and 10 th centuries  Islam starts to occupy parts of the Byzantine Empire  War between the two blocs, but also dialogue (debate)  Start to see emergence of Islamic and Jewish scholars and philosophers who translates Greek texts into Latin  E.g. Al-Farabi comments on Plato’s Republic

Preservation of Scholarship Wikipedia  9 th and 10 th centuries  Al-Farabi comments that justice and rational thought will not come when kings are philosophers and philosophers are kings, but rather it will come when the philosopher is a prophet and a prophet is a philosopher  Islam encourages scholarship e.g. the first revelation received by the unlettered Prophet (SAW), instructed him to read, the Prophet (SAW) also said that knowledge must be sought even if in China Read: In the name of thy Lord Who createth

The Fall of the Byzantine Empire Osprey  1453 Siege mentality  Steady outflow of Byzantine-Greek scholars heading west  Increases scholarship in the West  Scholarship stopped in 476 AD because 1. disintegration of political structures  2. attack and invasions 3. loss control of the Mediterranean and trade routes 4. emergence of the Church

The Scientific Revolution  12 th and 13 th centuries  The Renaissance  1543 Scientific Revolution  Publication of Archimedes ( BC)  Copernicus ( ) A heliocentric system  Vesalius ( ) Published work on dissections replaces Galen ( AD) Wikipedia Wikipedia: Copernicus Wikipedia: Vesalius

The Scientific Revolution  1543 Emergence of Philosophy  Father of Philosophy Rene Descartes ( ) I think, therefore I am  Emergence of Sir Francis Bacon ( )  Galileo Galilei ( )  Johannes Kepler ( ) Descartes Bacon Galileo Kepler

PlatoAristotle “Top down” approach One starts with an idea Theory laden observation Rational tradition DEDUCTIVE REASONING Bottom up approach Drawing conclusions from observation Empirical tradition INDUCTIVE REASONING Rene DescartesSir Francis Bacon The Scientific Revolution

Sir Francis Bacon: Induction  What is induction? Inductive reasoning starts with an observation. Repeated observation leads one to conclude that: All observed swans are white (specific statement) Therefore all swans are white (general statement) Bacon Observation(s) Wikipedia

Problems with Induction  There are weaknesses to the inductive method of reasoning, for example looking at our argument: All observed swans are white (specific statement) Therefore all swans are white (general statement)  What would happen if we stayed in Europe and only saw, white swans during our lifetime? CONCLUSION: All swans are white  What would happen if we went to Australia and see a black swan? CONCLUSION: We were wrong, our reasoning is not sound Wikipedia: Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) Wikipedia: The Black Swan (Cygnus atratus)

Problems with Induction  Below another example: Turkey has seen may days come and go, why should 25 December be any different? Induction proves fatal 01 January-24 December25 December

Problems with Induction: David Hume  The example of the swans and the turkey are both hasty generalisations, which assumes all swans are white, and as a healthy turkey I can expect to see the next day  David Hume ( ), Scottish philosopher, pointed out this weakness of induction  Hume was however, in agreement with Bacon that knowledge must be gained empirically, through observation, experience and experimentation  Despite Hume’s objection, and the problems with induction, we see three centuries of massive gathering of scientific knowledge using induction Wikipedia

Empiricism vs Dogma (Induction vs Deduction)  Sir Francis Bacon emphasised that knowledge could only be gained by experiencing the world i.e. make observations, collect data, conduct experiments (empiricism)  The inductive method of inquiry was in opposition to the dogmatic teachings of the Church, which made biased, subjective assumptions  The Church is dogmatic because it assumes that religious knowledge is true and can be used to derive scientific knowledge or truths; the Church uses deductive reasoning  An example of this clash can be seen with the response of the Church to Galileo, after he supported Copernicus’ idea on a heliocentric system (the Earth is the centre and the other heavenly bodies revolve around it)

Empiricism vs Rationalism (Induction vs Deduction)  Bacon and Hume was also in opposition to the Continental Rationalists, for example Rene Descartes ( )  Descartes was a mathematician and he followed the same method used by the ancient Greek mathematicians, namely, start with a set of ideas (theorems, axioms) and derive a new theorem from that body of existing knowledge  The continental rationalist, like Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza, drew a distinction between knowledge of eternal truth, for example, mathematics, and knowledge which had to be gained through experience (experimentation), for example, biology

Empiricism vs Rationalism (Induction vs Deduction)  New mathematical knowledge can be gained by using existing knowledge, using logic and reason to produce new mathematical knowledge, because mathematical truth is absolute, eternal, and certain 1 1 Wikipedia

Hypothetico-deductive Method  The natural and the physical sciences lends itself better to empiricism, and less so to rationalism (using logic and reason alone)  However, that is not to say that biologists do not use the deductive method of reasoning  Deduction and induction often work together in the natural and physical science Wikipedia: Popper

Hypothetico-deductive Method  Induction ensures that there is an adequate number of unbiased observations (accumulated knowledge)  Deduction can use the accumulated knowledge to ask question based on reason and logic  An example of this is the Global Warming and Global Dimming issue

Hypothetico-deductive Method  An example of this is the Global Warming and Global Dimming issue INDUCTION experience experiment observe EMPIRICIST DEDUCTION reason logic RATIONALIST falsification BODY OF KNOWLEDGE Deduction draws from the body of knowledge Induction increases the body of knowledge FACTTHEORY

Hypothetico-deductive Method INDUCTION accumulation of weather data supporting Global Warming EMPIRICIST DEDUCTION reason about weather data and its effects RATIONALIST falsification BODY OF KNOWLEDGE Deduction draws from the body of knowledge Induction increases the body of knowledge FACTTHEORY

Hypothetico-deductive Method INDUCTION accumulation of weather data supporting Global Dimming EMPIRICIST DEDUCTION reason about weather data and its effects RATIONALIST falsification BODY OF KNOWLEDGE Deduction draws from the body of knowledge Induction increases the body of knowledge FACTTHEORY

Hypothetico-deductive method  The hypothetico method uses falsification instead of verification to test theories  Sir Karl Popper developed the hypothetico-deductive method to counter the biased verification of theories  This method also tested existing theories and ideas, using deduction

Thomas Kuhn  Thomas Kuhn ( ) stated that there are two types of knowledge or science, namely, core science and normal science  Core science is proven scientific knowledge, which scientists do not question, they do not try to falsify it  Normal science is the science that scientist do everyday to find answers, namely, the accumulation of data and to solve questions or puzzles Wikipedia

Thomas Kuhn  Normal science sometimes comes up with anomolies, which does not threaten the core science, for example global dimming was explained to be a symptom of climate change  However, as anomolies accumulate over time, scientists have to revisit what they previously held to be true. They can no longer ignore the anomolies, and must instead replace or modify existing core science

Prescience Crisis Normal ScienceRevolution