By: MAYO

Philosophes Writers and critics who forged the new attitudes favorable to change, who championed reform and who flourished in the emerging print culture

Reading During the Enlightenment ► - 80% for men; 60 % for women. ► Literacy: - 80% for men; 60 % for women. ► Books were expensive (one day’s wages) ► Many readers for each book (20 : 1) - novels, plays & other literature. - journals, memoirs, “private lives.” - philosophy, history, theology. - newspapers, political pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

The 18 th Century ► Political History -->>> ► Political History -->>> Reform ► Intellectual History --> ► Intellectual History --> Reason ► Cultural History --> ► Cultural History --> Individualism ► Social History --> -- ► Social History --> Increased Literacy -- Age of Aristocracy ► Economic History --> ► Economic History --> Mercantilism to Capitalism

18 th Century Politics ► --– Constitutional Monarchy ► BRITAIN --– Constitutional Monarchy ► --> Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) ► FRANCE --> Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) ► --– “Enlightened Despotism” ► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA --– “Enlightened Despotism” ► –-- traditional empire ► OTTOMAN EMPIRE –-- traditional empire

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► POLITICAL: revulsion against political abuses arising in the 1680s - James II --– Catholicization & the return of absolutism in England. - Louis XIV --– revoked the Edict of Nantes (persecution of the Huguenots).  revulsion against political abuses arising in the 1680s - James II --– Catholicization & the return of absolutism in England. - Louis XIV --– revoked the Edict of Nantes (persecution of the Huguenots).

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► POLITICAL: Resolved in England by: - Glorious Revolution - new political party -- Whigs - John Locke became the “prophet” of this new pol./ intellectual movement.  Resolved in England by: - Glorious Revolution - new political party -- Whigs - John Locke became the “prophet” of this new pol./ intellectual movement.

John Locke ( ) ► Letter on Toleration, 1689 ► Two Treatises of Government, 1690 ► Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 1693 ► The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I) ► The individual must become a “rational creature.” ► Virtue can be learned and practiced. ► Human beings possess free will. - they should be prepared for freedom. - obedience should be out of conviction, not out of fear. ► Legislators owe their power to a contract with the people. ► Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II) ► There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human beings. - life, liberty, property! ► The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense. ► He favored a republic as the best form of government.

Thomas Paine ( ) ► Common Sense, 1776 ► The Rights of Man, 1791

The American “Philosophes” John Adams ( ) Ben Franklin ( ) Thomas Jefferson ( ) …...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► SCIENTIFIC:  Science presented new standards for arriving at the truth. - it stood for philosophical elegance (the elimination of any abstract notion for which no physical reality seemed to exist).

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► SCIENTIFIC: Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical.  Newton’s system was synonymous with the empirical and the practical. Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas.  Scientific laws could be expressed as universal mathematical formulas. Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion.  Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion.

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections ► Cocoa plant drawing. ► Sir Hans Sloane ( ). ► collected from Jamaica.

Natural History Collections James Petiver’s Beetles (London apothecary)

Private Collections The Origins of Modern Museums.

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► RELIGIOUS: physico-theology –-- an attempt inspired by science to explain God’s providence by reference to his work in nature & not primarily through his biblical Word.  physico-theology –-- an attempt inspired by science to explain God’s providence by reference to his work in nature & not primarily through his biblical Word. support of a “rational” religion, free from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions.  support of a “rational” religion, free from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions.

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► RELIGIOUS: Deism - The belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a denial of revealed religion, basing one’s belief on the light of nature and reason.  Deism - The belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a denial of revealed religion, basing one’s belief on the light of nature and reason. Deists saw no point in any particular religion; they recognized only a distant God uninvolved in the daily life of man.  Deists saw no point in any particular religion; they recognized only a distant God uninvolved in the daily life of man.

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► RELIGIOUS: Unitarianism - very simple church ceremonies, a simplified doctrine centering on the belief in one God, not the Trinity, and on the right of each individual to fashion his or her own understanding of a spiritual life.  Unitarianism - very simple church ceremonies, a simplified doctrine centering on the belief in one God, not the Trinity, and on the right of each individual to fashion his or her own understanding of a spiritual life.

The Origins of Enlightenment? ► RELIGIOUS: Gradually, highly educated Prots. & Caths. thought more about God’s work as revealed through science, than through the Scriptures.  Gradually, highly educated Prots. & Caths. thought more about God’s work as revealed through science, than through the Scriptures. Pantheism - The belief that God and nature are one and the same.  Pantheism - The belief that God and nature are one and the same.

BIG DEBATE: Religion v. Reason ► The Enlightenment did NOT banish religion and superstition. ► They existed side by side –-- one often provided justification for the other. ► Clergy played an important role in the training of scientists & philosophers. (many were active in the field themselves!) ► Voltaire fought for those accused of heresy. ► The Encyclopedie used covert topic headings to address religion critically.

What is “Enlightenment?” Reason & Logic Traditions and Superstitions Immanuel Kant –-- DARE TO KNOW!  rationalism  empiricism  tolerance  skepticism  Deism  nostalgia for the past  organized religions  irrationalism  emotionalism

Immanuel Kant ( ) ► Critique of Pure Reason, 1781 ► “What is Enlightenment?”, 1784

Centers of the Enlightenment

Why Study the Enlightenment? –-- autonomous & free use of one’s own reason, toleration, progress & questioning authority. 1. Its values –-- autonomous & free use of one’s own reason, toleration, progress & questioning authority. –-- perfectibility of all humans; reliability of the evidence of the senses & instruments of measurement. 2. Assumptions –-- perfectibility of all humans; reliability of the evidence of the senses & instruments of measurement.

Why Study the Enlightenment? –-- technological treatment of nature. 3. Practices –-- technological treatment of nature. –-- scientific institutes, centralized states, & technocratic experts. 4. Institutions –-- scientific institutes, centralized states, & technocratic experts. – Religious Values v. Secular Values 5. Debate: – Religious Values v. Secular Values

A Parisian Salon

The Salonnieres Madame Geoffrin ( ) Mademoiselle Julie de Lespinasse (1732*-1776) Madame Suzanne Necker ( )

Edward Gibbon ( ) ► The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1787.

Denis Diderot ( )

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie ► Complete cycle of knowledge……change the general way of thinking. ► 28 volumes. ► Alphabetical, cross-referenced, illustrated. ► First published in ► 1500 livres a set.

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

The “Republic of Letters” ► –-- gathering of elites in the cities. (salons) ► URBAN –-- gathering of elites in the cities. (salons) ► --– cosmopolitan, worldly - music, art, literature, politics - read newspapers & the latest books. ► URBANE --– cosmopolitan, worldly - music, art, literature, politics - read newspapers & the latest books. ► –-- proper behavior - self-governed. ► POLITENESS –-- proper behavior - self-governed.

Alexander Pope English poet who contributed to political thought, love of language “Good books have the power to sustain and improve us” Grew up with a love of the classics and desire for self education Wrote in rhymed iambic pentameter Fools rush in where angels fear to tread Hope springs eternal in the human breast To err is human, to forgive divine A little learning is a dangerous thing

Jonathan Swift Satirist who seemed to hate the human race, actually just hated injustice Gulliver’s Travels –Biting satire on the state of England Irish Tory Strong supporter of Monarchy and Anglican church Wrote – A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for making Them beneficial to the Public

“Must Read” Books of the Time

The Philosophe ► --– broad knowledge ► polymathic --– broad knowledge ► –-- beholden to no one. ► autonomous –-- beholden to no one. ► –-- worked with other philosophes. ► sociable –-- worked with other philosophes. ► –-- improve society. - find the most just and efficient “systems.” (economic, political, social) ► moral obligation –-- improve society. - find the most just and efficient “systems.” (economic, political, social)

Voltaire ( ) ► Essay on the Customs and Spirit of Nations, 1756 ► Candide, 1759 ► Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

VOLTAIRE French Deist Wrote Candide “Crush The Infamous Thing” (referred to the Catholic Church) Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities. Voltaire Author and Philosopher

Candide Published in 1759, Candide is considered Voltaire’s signature work, and it is here that he levels his sharpest criticism against nobility, philosophy, the church, and cruelty. Though often considered a representative text of the Enlightenment, the novel actually savagely satires a number of Enlightenment philosophies and demonstrates that the Enlightenment was a far from monolithic movement It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. -- Voltaire (attributed: source unknown

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I) ► E► E► E► Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. ► G► G► G► God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. ► I► I► I► If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. ► I► I► I► It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. ► L► L► L► Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II) ► J► J► J► Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers. ► M► M► M► Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference. ► P► P► P► Prejudice is opinion without judgment. ► T► T► T► The way to become boring is to say everything. ► I► I► I► I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.

The Baron de Montesquieu ( ) ► Persian Letters, 1721 ► On the Spirit of Laws, 1758

The Physiocrats: A Celebration of the Farmer ► A► A► A► An economic theory which considered that the wealth of nations was derived solely from agriculture. ► T► T► T► They strongly opposed mercantilism, because they pictured the peasant society as the economic foundation of a nation’s wealth.

► A► A► A► Adam Smith – The Wealth of Nations  P P P Profit motive.  D D D Division of labor.  P P P Private ownership of property.  L L L Law of Supply & Demand.  L L L Law of Competition.  F F F Free trade.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) ► Discourse on the Arts & Sciences, 1751 ► Emile, 1762 ► The Social Contract, 1762

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r ) ► – ► Succeeded his father, Frederick William I (the “Soldier King”). He saw himself as the “First Servant of the State.”

Catherine the Great (r ) ► German Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst. ► – 1796.

1767: Catherine summons the Legislative Commission : Russo-Turkish War : Pugachev Rebellion is suppressed. 1772: First partition of Poland. 1785: Charter of Nobility. 1793: Second partition of Poland. 1795: Third partition of Poland. 1767: Catherine summons the Legislative Commission : Russo-Turkish War : Pugachev Rebellion is suppressed. 1772: First partition of Poland. 1785: Charter of Nobility. 1793: Second partition of Poland. 1795: Third partition of Poland. Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

Russian Expansionism in the 18c

Joseph II of Austria (r ) ► – ► His mother was Maria Theresa.

1772: First partition of Poland : He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands. 1781: Declared the Toleration Patent. 1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues. 1785: He failed to exchange the Austria Netherlands for Bavaria : Aus. joined Rus. in the Russo- Turkish War, but little was gained. 1795: Third partition of Poland. 1772: First partition of Poland : He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands. 1781: Declared the Toleration Patent. 1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues. 1785: He failed to exchange the Austria Netherlands for Bavaria : Aus. joined Rus. in the Russo- Turkish War, but little was gained. 1795: Third partition of Poland. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 1. The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on the defensive. 2. Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 3. New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/scientific organizations c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)

The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 5. It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”). 6. Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the individual had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with.