Multiculturalism In Western Europe And North America MM202 Lecture 2 Concepts of Multiculturalism Multiculturalism In Western Europe And North America Institute Of Western European Studies, FSV UK Spring Lecturer: Antonin Mikeš abtmikes@gmail.com

“When we identify one thing as unlike the others, we are dividing the world; we use our language to exclude, to distinguish – to discriminate.” Minow. M. Making all the difference 1990

Racism is Racism Are there different forms of racism? What are they?

Are there different forms of racism? What are they? Answers #1 Type:  Individual Belief in superiority of Whites Violence against "non-Whites“ Denial of the existence of racism in any form. Belief that lack of success of "non-White" persons is due to genetic inferiority or racial-group malaise. Type:  Cultural Language superiority Law, politics defined from a White perspective In education, science, philosophy and so forth, the contributions of White people are the best. Type:  Institutional Law enforcement policies are more stringent for people of color. Unemployment and underemployment for people of color. Inadequate housing

Are there different forms of racism? What are they? Answers #2 Racist behaviour may be direct (overt) or indirect (covert) in nature. Direct racial discrimination: is the unfair or unequal treatment of a person or a group on racial grounds. An example would be an employer who won't hire someone on the basis of their cultural or linguistic background. This type of discrimination is typically deliberate. Indirect racial discrimination: is seemingly equitable on the surface, but in practice disadvantages people from particular groups. For example, a rule that says that all students must not wear anything on their heads could result in discrimination against students whose religion requires the wearing of headwear. Indirect racial discrimination can occur even when there is no intention to discriminate. Institutional racism (or systemic racism): describes forms of racism which are structured into political and social institutions. It occurs when organisations, institutions or governments discriminate, either deliberately or indirectly, against certain groups of people to limit their rights.

Racism defined…. “Racism is an ideology that gives expression to myths about other racial and ethnic groups, that devalues and renders inferior those groups, that reflects and is perpetuated by deeply rooted historical, social, cultural and power inequalities in society.” 6

Today Positive action vrs pos. Discrimination Multiculturalism Theory- Descriptive vrs Normative Brief look at schools of thought Integration Forms Theories Policies

What is the difference between: Positive Action Positive Discrimination

Positive action What is positive action? The term 'positive action' refers to a number of methods designed to counteract the effects of past discrimination and to help abolish stereotyping. Action can be taken to encourage people from particular groups to take advantage of opportunities for work and training. This can be done when under­representation of particular groups has been identified in the previous year. Under this broad meaning positive action may include initiatives such as the introduction of non-discriminatory selection procedures, training programmes or policies aimed at preventing sexual harassment. http://www.equality-online.org.uk/equality_advice/positive_action.html

Positive action cont. Positive action Employers may not discriminate in the actual selection for a post on the grounds of sex or race but the legislation does allow measures to be taken to encourage members of under-represented groups to take advantage of opportunities. However, positive action which is lawful should not be confused with positive discrimination which is unlawful. (ACAS)‏ http://www.equality-online.org.uk/employment_legislation/race_legislation_definitions.html No one should be worse off due to positive action

Theories affect outcomes

Different theories of Multiculturalism Descriptive – post 1945- rapid influx of people from all over the world into countries like the UK, France Netherlands, Canada.- resulting in a grudging acceptance of new idea’s and heterogeneity Normative – cultural diversity as good- resulting in what may be called a loss of national cohesion- Canada today. Diversity as enriching

Different theories: Gov. Policy Government policy (Canada, Australia)‏ Canada – (normative policies)‏ the Constitution of Canada recognizes the importance of preserving and enhancing the multicultural heritage of Canadians; the Government of Canada recognizes the diversity of Canadians as regards race, national or ethnic origin, colour and religion as a fundamental characteristic of Canadian society and is committed to a policy of multiculturalism designed to preserve and enhance the multicultural heritage of Canadians….. http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/multi/policy/act_e.cfm 13

Different theories: Gov. Policy Government policy (Canada, Australia)‏ Australia– (normative policies) Multicultural Australia: United in Diversity (Gov slogan 2003)‏ Responsibilities of all All Australians have a civic duty to support …our freedom and equality and enable diversity in our society to flourish. Respect for each person Fairness for each person All Australians are entitled to equality of treatment and opportunity. Benefits for all All Australians benefit from productive diversity, ie. the significant cultural, social and economic dividends arising from the diversity of our population. Diversity works for all Australians. http://webster.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/a-diverse-australia/government-policy/index.htm 14

Different theories: Institutional Policy Institutional policies EU Race Equality Directives EU.(Art.1)‏ The purpose of this Directive is to lay down a framework for combating discrimination on the grounds of racial or ethnic origin, with a view to putting into effect in the Member States. the principle of equal treatment. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE of 9 February 1976 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions (76/207/EEC)‏ Other EU directives http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/fundamental_rights/pdf/legisln/2000_43_en.pdf. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=en&numdoc=31976L0207&model=guichett 15

Different theories: Institutional Policy Institutional policies UK UK – racial equality, Commission for Racial Equality The Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) is a publicly funded, non- departmental public body, set up under the Race Relations Act 1976 to tackle racial discrimination and to promote equal opportunities and good race relations.  Race Relations Act (1976)‏ Race Relations Act protects (against) racial discrimination in most, but not all, situations http://www.cre.gov.uk/ http://www.cre.gov.uk/legal/protected.html 16

Different theories: Institutional Policy Institutional policies Canada Canadian Multiculturalism Act “pluralism that was a fact of Canadian life.” 1960 Passage of the Canadian Bill of Rights 1969 Book IV of the Bilingualism and Biculturalism Commission Report emphasizes the bilingual and multicultural nature of Canada 1969 Introduction of the Official Languages Act 1971 Introduction of Canada's Multiculturalism Policy 1982 Adoption of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 1988 Passage of the Canadian Multiculturalism Act 1997   Renewed Multiculturalism Program announced http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/multi/policy/act_e.cfm http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/canadian_studies/english/about/multi/index.htm http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/progs/multi/policy/framework_e.cfm 17

Different theories: Institutional Policy Institutional policies Australia The Living in Harmony initiative, including Harmony Day. See: Living In Harmony The Access and Equity strategy. See: Fairer Government Services and Programmes The Diversity Works! programme See: Diversity Works! The Muslim Community Reference Group See: Muslim Community Reference Group The National Action Plan See: National Action Plan http://webster.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/a-diverse-australia/government-policy/australians-together/current-policy/strategies.htm 18

Theories in Multiculturalism an Overview

Multiculturalism – Philosophies. Stages: communitarian, liberal, nation building (Kymlicka)‏ Integration, inclusion, inclusive education Intercultural vs multicultural Politics of redistribution, of recognition (Frazer) politics of equal dignity – “acknowledge cultures” (Autonomy/universalism) & politics of difference “uniqueness of their identities” (Authenticity/identity) (from “The Politics of Recognition" Charles Taylor) http://www.interculturalrelations.com/ http://www.luc.edu/depts/philosophy/tec/wren/taylor.htm 20

Multiculturalism – cont. Conservative (diversity as a deficit, communit.)‏ Left essentialist (Afrocentrism, also communit.)‏ Liberal (natural equality, lack of opportunities, decontextualisation, depolitisation)‏ procedural liberalism vs communitarian liber. – Kis, Taylor, Kymlicka (see also politics of recognition)‏ Pluralist - salad bowl (exoticism, affirmation) vs melting pot

Multiculturalism – cont. Critical MC (Frankfurt School, power, emancipation, soc. justice, self reflection)‏ Antiracist (life chances )‏ Reflexive (Ali Ratansi – Derrida + Giddens)‏ Cosmopolitan Ethnicity as habitus (Bourdieu)‏ Hybridity (H. Bhabha, Paul Gilroy, St. Hall) rooting vs shifting (see S. May, P. McLaren, etc)‏

Multiculturalism – cont. V. Parrillo: three models of minority integration: Assimilation (majority- conformity)‏ Amalgamation (melting pot)‏ Accommodation (pluralism) (multiculturalism)‏ Multiculturalism = diversity + cooperation Parillo, 1997

Multiculturalism – cont. Eva Sobotka: policies twds the Roma in CEE: Exclusion – common in the past (communists who pretended that Roma were workers just like everyone else)‏ Assimilation – France- Co-existence – Czech Rep now- Germany to some extent- Netherlands- Multiculturalism – Canada and UK Melting pot- USA Sobotka 2003

Multicultural Policy: target groups/requirements Indigenous (Nunavat in Canada, Sami in Scandinavia)‏ National minorities (Canada, Europe)‏ Legal immigrants (USA, Australia)‏ Irregular & illegal immigrants – denizens (foreign citizens who have acquired permanent resident status)‏ metics (caste ranking between slaves and citizens)‏ AfroAmericans Roma, Ch. Jews, Amish, etc Kymlicka –stages: communitarian, liberal, nation building

Multiculturalism – Philosophies. Integration, inclusion, inclusive education Intercultural vs multicultural Intercultural studies are studies that focus on the interaction two or more cultures and answer the main question of what happens when of two or more cultures interact (at the interpersonal level, group- level or international level). Politics of : redistribution, of recognition (Frazer) equal dignity – “acknowledge cultures” (autonomy/universalism) & difference “uniqueness of their identities” (authenticity/identity) (From “the politics of recognition" Charles Taylor) http://www.interculturalrelations.com/ http://www.luc.edu/depts/philosophy/tec/wren/taylor.htm 26

Integration of Immigrants Forms of Integration (4)- Marginalization, Segmentation, Multi- integration, assimilation Assimilation- pros and cons Integration policy Obstacles- countries compared Towards the future Adapted from Heinz Fassmann IOM 2010

Forms of Assimilation

Marginalization Migrants are neither tied in their origin country nor in their new destination, they are marginalized, they live between two societies Part of the labour force migration of the 60s and 70s, Asylum seekers

Segmentation ie. Parallel Societies Migrants have not „arrived“ in the receiving society, and are still a part of their origin society Muslim communities in large cities; elite migrants with diplomatic status

Multiple Integration Migrants are part of the receiving society and at the same time part of the origin context Bi-/Multilingualism; Hybrid identities - values and ethnic norms both of countries of origin as well as receiving society; switching identities in dependency of social environment

Assimilation One sided (Chicago school) or interactive adaption process (Esser, Alba) which leads to dissolution of the „ethnic dimension“; No relation to the country of origin (or ethnic community) and only interaction with the host society; The concept of assimilation refers to the „Chicago school of sociology“ (1920s); Idea of melting pot

Assimilation The concept refers to the “Chicago school of sociology” (1920s); Assimilation as a concept can be differentiated into phases: 1. Migration and contact 2. Competition and conflict of resources 3. Adaption (acculturation) to the mainstream society 4. Finally disappearance of the ethnic origin

Assimilation 4 dimensions of assimilation (Esser 2001): Structural assimilation: Status, profession; housing Cognitive assimilation: language, norms, behaviour; Identificatory assimilation: Identity Social Assimilation: Inter ethnic contacts- marriage

Pros and Cons of the 4 forms Marginality No pros only cons; it could never be a target of integration policy to keep migrants out societal relations and structures; Segmentation Pros: strong coherence within the group of migrants or ethnic minority Cons: „parallel society“ contradicts to the idea of cohesion; loyalty conflicts and ethnic motivated riots

Pros and Cons Assimilation Pros: strong cohesion, no loyalty conflicts, ethnic structures cannot be maintained easily Cons: extinction of cultural capital, language capacity and useful ties to the home country Cons: difficult definition: what is assimilation? For discussion German „Leitkultur“

Pros and Cons Multiple Integration Pros: mediates between different societies; cultural capital as economically beneficial Cons: border between cultural autonomy (e.g. familiar rights) and common norms remains unclear; loyalty conflicts (in order of norms, traditions, spoken language, and behaviour: tradition vs. modernism, country of origin vs. new home country) Cons: cognitively difficult for migrants (knowledge of two or more languages/histories/norms)

Integration of Immigrants

Integration Policy-can be... Preventive Requirement to learn German (or Dutch) before immigration; Distributing information in source country as preventive measure Accompanying comprises language courses, mentoring programs or information material to dis-burden the ongoing inclusion process Catching up Qualification and language competence improvement For example: re-qualification of a medical doctor

Integration Policy-can... address certain fields Language and education Labour market Housing and spatial dimension Sport and leisure time Intercultural dialogue

Obstacles Conflictual discussion Institutional obstacles Integration measurements should be voluntarily to provide learning success Integration measurements should be mandatory otherwise they would be ignored (linked with financial transfers or with the length of a legal stay) Institutional obstacles Integration policy should be concentrated in one hand (ministry or department) Integration policy is a cross sectional policy and should therefore be implemented in each of the responsible unit (ministry for education, health, labour etc.)

Obstacles- cont. Distribution of competences Responsibility lies with federal state, the region and the local level; The EU is still expanding the competence in this policy area as well (2010 Treaty of Lisbon; 2005 the “Common Basic Principles on Integration) Integration is a dynamic, bi-directional process of mutual cooperation Employment is a basic component of the process of integration Basic knowledge of the language, history and institutions is a necessary requirement; Efforts in the educational system to empower migrants of the first and second generation to participate actively in the social life The charter of basic rights assuring the right of free religion, if there is no conflict with other European rights; Participation of migrants on the democratic processes, especially on the local level, will foster integration;

Primary obstacles are the different principal approaches within EU and worldwide 1. Liberal paradigm of integration (USA, UK) No forced assimilation; plurality is guaranteed and segregation can be observed; the Amish lives without electricity and cars and they are respected; Migration: everyone is welcomed but no public support and no social transfers Problems of segregation are security problems Important is the national overhead (flag, constitution, anthem)

Primary obstacles. Cont 2. Republican model (France) Assimilation is necessary; plurality and diversity are incompatible with the republican values; Migrants are welcome who respects the republican ideals Division of state and church Commitment to the Republic and to France; French language and the French culture Citizenship is strictly linked to the republican values but it is possible to become a „true Frenchman“ (Sarkozy) because the past and the ancestry is irrelevant (citizen are equal by birth)

Primary obstacle are the different principal approaches within EU and worldwide 3. Paradigm of descent (Germany) The people are defined by a common descent; shared history and myth The integration paradigm is that of segmentation; to become a „true German“ or „Austrian“ is difficult and needs in principal many decades; but Germany changed it‘s paradigm in 2005 Control of migration and selection of migrants is necessary to be sure that the “right persons” will enter the territory. The welfare state makes it necessary to control who is eligible to receive resources.

Towards the Future The need for integration policy Every migration policy lacks integration policy concepts. research about guest workers from the 1970s and 1980s demonstrates the deficits and unintended side effects of the rotation policy. Integration policy should offer clear future for immigrants and also implement concrete integration measures. Integration policy should not endeavour for pure assimilation nor cultivate diversity for its own sake.

Towards the Future Integration policy should focus on structural harmonization- implementation of preventive, accompanying and catching up integration measurements. Housing markets have to be open while frictions on the labour market have to be avoided. Integration policy should borrow some elements from the republican and the liberal paradigm Clear guide for the migrants to become citizens if they wish Recognition that integration processes need time and plurality of different lifestyles