Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-1 CHAPTER 9 BODY ORGANIZATION

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-2 Chapter 9 Learning Objectives  Identify the meaning of 10 or more terms relating to the organization of the body.  Describe the properties of life.  Label the structures of the cell, and describe the function of each.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-3 Chapter 9 Learning Objectives  Describe the organization of the body from the smallest unit to the largest.  Describe organs of the body in relation to the plane, region, or cavity of location.  Describe five or more disorders resulting from variations or defects in cellular organization.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-4 Anatomy and Physiology  Four basic properties of life  Reception Ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environmentAbility of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environment  Metabolism Process of taking in and using nutrients to produce energy and growthProcess of taking in and using nutrients to produce energy and growth  Reproduction Ability to reproduce offspring to continue the speciesAbility to reproduce offspring to continue the species  Organization Division of the organism into distinct parts to perform these functionsDivision of the organism into distinct parts to perform these functions

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-5Anatomy  Organization of body structures on five levels:  Cells: smallest units of life  Tissues: combinations of similar cells  Organs: collections of tissues working together to perform a function  Body system: organs that work together to provide a major body function  Organism: being that results when the body systems work together to maintain life

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-6 Cell Structure  Major structures of a cell are called organelles  Nucleus Controls activity of the cell Controls activity of the cell Directs reproduction Directs reproduction  Cytoplasm Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell  Mitochondria Produce the energy used for cellular processes Produce the energy used for cellular processes

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-7 Cell Structure  Cell membrane Surrounds the cell Surrounds the cell Controls which substances enter and leave the cell Controls which substances enter and leave the cell  Lysosomes Help to break down, or digest, molecules Help to break down, or digest, molecules  Ribosomes Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum Work to produce protein for the cell structures Work to produce protein for the cell structures  Golgi apparatus Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-8 Structures of the Cell FIGURE 9-1 The structures of the cell. (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St. Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9-9 Homeostasis  Tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balance  Refers to maintaining constancy of the internal milieu or fluid surrounding cells of the organism  Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal environment is kept constant.  Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Homeostasis  Physiologic components of homeostasis or state of balance  Body temperature  Gas exchange  pH values  Water and ion balance  Volume and pressure of fluid  Waste removal  Nutrient intake

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Homeostasis and Body Systems

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Electrolytes  Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called ions  Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in the cytoplasm of a cell Positive charge (cation) creates an acid Positive charge (cation) creates an acid Negative charge (anion) creates a base Negative charge (anion) creates a base  Different electrolytes have special functions.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Electrolytes of the Body

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc pH  The pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is present.  Each tissue has a normal pH value.  Cells do not function properly if the normal pH is not maintained for that area of the body.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc pH FIGURE 9-2 The body’s pH. The body must maintain normal pH levels to function properly.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Tissue Types  Four main tissue types  Epithelial tissue Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs  Connective tissue Formed by a protein Formed by a protein Includes soft tissues, such as fat and blood cells, and hard tissues, such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage Includes soft tissues, such as fat and blood cells, and hard tissues, such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Tissue Types  Muscle tissue Made of protein fibers Made of protein fibers Has the unique property of shortening to produce movement Has the unique property of shortening to produce movement  Nervous tissue Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Systems  A body system is a group of related organs.  Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support life.  There are 12 body systems.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Systems  Integumentary system  Covers the body  Protects other body systems  Cardiovascular system  Transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts  Removes waste products

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Systems  Circulatory system  Includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the body  Respiratory system  Exchanges gases between the air and blood  Skeletal system  Provides body support and protection

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Systems  Muscular system  Allows the body to move  Controls movements within the body  Digestive system  Processes food  Eliminates food waste

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Systems  Urinary system  Filters the blood  Removes liquid wastes  Endocrine system  Coordinates body functions through hormones  Nervous system  Regulates the environment  Directs the activities of other body systems

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Systems  Sensory system  Perceives the environment  Sends messages to and from the brain  Reproductive system  Provides for human reproduction

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Anatomic Position  Anatomic position is the standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomy.  A person assumes an erect standing position with  Mouth closed  Eyes and head facing forward  Feet slightly apart and toes facing forward  Arms close to the body, with palms facing forward and fingers extended

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Anatomic Position FIGURE 9-4 Anatomic position. (From Sorrentino S: Mosby’s text for nursing assistants, ed 7. St Louis, 2008, Mosby.)

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Planes  Three planes are used to describe the body.  Coronal or frontal Separates the front and back of the body Separates the front and back of the body  Transverse Divides the upper and lower body Divides the upper and lower body  Sagittal Divides the body into right and left sides Divides the body into right and left sides

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Planes  Location of organs is described in relation to these planes:  Inferior (below)  Superior (above)  Medial (close to)  Lateral (away from)  Anterior or ventral (in front of)  Posterior or dorsal (behind)  Other terms used to indicate where one organ attaches to another: Proximal (close to) Proximal (close to) Distal (away from) Distal (away from)

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Planes FIGURE 9-5 Body planes. A, Coronal. B, Transverse. C, Sagittal.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Cavities  Five body cavities  Thoracic Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels  Abdominal Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys  Pelvic Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum  Cranial Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands  Spinal Houses the spinal cord and nerves Houses the spinal cord and nerves

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Cavities FIGURE 9-6 Cavities of the body.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Regions  Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of nine regions:  Right hypochondriac  Epigastric  Left hypochondriac  Right lumbar  Umbilical  Left lumbar  Right inguinal  Hypogastric  Left inguinal

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Body Regions Body Regions FIGURE 9-7 Body regions. 1, Right hypochondriac. 2, Epigastric. 3, Left hypochondriac. 4, Right lumbar. 5, Umbilical. 6, Left lumbar. 7, Right inguinal. 8, Hypogastric. 9, Left inguinal. (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Abdominal Quadrants  Four quadrants  Right upper  Right lower  Left upper  Left lower

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Abdominal Quadrants FIGURE 9-8 Division of the abdomen into four quadrants. Diagram shows relationship of internal organs to the four abdominopelvic quadrants: 1, right upper quadrant (RUQ); 2, left upper quadrant (LUQ); 3, right lower quadrant (RLQ); 4, left lower quadrant (LLQ). (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Function  Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomes.  Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes.  All chromosomes (except sex chromosomes X and Y) are paired and called homologous autosomes.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Function  Meiosis  Cell divides into two parts, with each containing only one half of the chromosomes  Part of the reproduction process  Results in the formation of sex cells (gametes) Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents to form one cell. Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents to form one cell. Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parent. Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parent.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Function  Heredity  Heredity is genetic transmission of particular characteristics (traits) from parent to offspring.  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the biologic molecule that contains instructions for producing these characteristics.  In the cell, strands of DNA are packaged into chromosomes, which contain segments called genes.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Function  Chromosomes  Made of threadlike strands of DNA  Contain 30,000 to 40,000 genes  Genotype  Genetic information configured in chromosomes Recessive genes Recessive genes Dominant genes Dominant genes Heterozygous pattern Heterozygous pattern  Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair Homozygous pattern Homozygous pattern  Two genes that are alike on the chromosome pair

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Function  Phenotype  Trait or appearance that results from the genotype  Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible for  Development of all body cells  Formation of tissues, organs, and body systems

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Karyotype FIGURE 9-10 The karyotype is an organized picture of the chromosomes. (Courtesy Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N.Y.)

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Formation Diseases  Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many genetic disorders, which may be  Hereditary (inherited)  Sporadic (acquired)  Abnormalities may result when there is a mutation of one or more genes.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Formation Diseases  More than 4000 genetic disorders identified  Most disorders are caused by more than one gene variation and environmental effect. Mulitifactorial genetic disorder (MFGD) Mulitifactorial genetic disorder (MFGD)  Not everyone with a gene variant develops the disorder.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Causes of Genetic Disorders

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Mapped Genetic Disorders

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cell Formation Diseases  Cancer  Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissues around them  Classified in five groups Carcinomas Carcinomas Leukemia Leukemia Sarcomas Sarcomas Lymphomas Lymphomas Adenomas Adenomas

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Five Groups of Cancer  Carcinomas  Mutated cells that cover internal or external parts of the body  Leukemia  Found in the blood and starts in bone marrow  Sarcomas  Found in connective tissue such as bones, muscle, fat, and cartilage

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Five Groups of Cancer  Lymphomas  Start in the lymph nodes and immune system tissues  Adenomas  Affect thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and other glandular tissues

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cancer  Common sites for development of cancer  Lungs  Breast  Colon  Uterus  Oral cavity  Bone marrow

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Warning Signs of Cancer

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Cancer  Cancer results from a mistake or mutation in a single cell’s division.  Cell division is uncontrolled.  More than 80% of cancer cases are related to smoking or exposure to chemicals, radiation, and ultraviolet light (e.g., sun, tanning beds).  Some types are related to viral infections.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Factors Associated with Cancer

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Inherited Cancers

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Issues and Innovations  Genetic engineering  Genetic abnormalities cause 4000 disorders.  Advanced techniques and procedures can identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus. Chorionic villus sampling Chorionic villus sampling Preimplantation diagnosis Preimplantation diagnosis Gene splicing Gene splicing

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Issues and Innovations  Cancer treatments  Immunotherapy Chemicals isolated from bacteria infected with the cancer Chemicals isolated from bacteria infected with the cancer Killed suspensions of bacteria Killed suspensions of bacteria Biologic substances that harm tumors Biologic substances that harm tumors  Interferon  Interleukin  Tumor necrosis factors  Growth factors

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Types of Cancer Treatments

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Issues and Innovations  Cancer treatments  Lasers Destroy cancerous cells Destroy cancerous cells Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology) Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)  Hyperthermia (increase in temperature) Used in combination with radiation therapy to treat some tumors Used in combination with radiation therapy to treat some tumors

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Summary  Properties of life  Reception  Metabolism  Reproduction  Organization  Structures of the cell  Nucleus  Cytoplasm  Cell membrane

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Summary  Organization of the body  Cells combine to make tissues.  Tissues combine to make organs.  Organs combine to make a body system.  Combined body systems make an organism.  The brain is located superior to the heart, which is anterior to the spinal cord.

Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003, 1997, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc Summary  Disorders resulting from defects in cell organization  Cleft lip  Clubfoot  Cystic fibrosis  Down syndrome  Huntington’s disease