Chapter 17 Frontiers in Ecosystem Science © 2013 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. From Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science, Weathers, Strayer, and Likens (eds).

2 Figure 17.1 Recovery trajectories in created and restored wetlands. Chronosequences of the mean response of restored or created wetland ecosystems back to reference conditions (dashed zero line). Restored or created wetlands converge to values similar to what is found in the reference wetland (dashed line), and recovery of function is generally enhanced over time (Y, years after restoration). Response ratio values are calculated by dividing the measured variable in the restored or created wetland by the same variable in the reference wetland. N-values below the x-axis of each panel show the number of sites of each age-class included in the study. bp, biogeochemical processes; bs, biological structure; C, carbon; hf, hydrological features; m, macroinvertebrates; N, nitrogen; p, plants; P, phosphorus; v, vertebrates. (From Moreno-Mateos et al ) © 2013 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. From Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science, Weathers, Strayer, and Likens (eds).

3 Figure 17.2 Development of the ecosystem concept. (a) Until the early twentieth century, the world was conceptually viewed as a group of organisms being influenced (note arrow direction) by the environment. (b) In the mid-1900s scientists introduced the term ecosystem, and suggested the importance of feedbacks (bidirectional effects, see arrows) between different components of the system. This new model recognized flows of energy and matter through ecological communities, and among the different abiotic and biotic components but did not have a human component. (c) In 1950–2000, many models incorporated the effects of humans as forces influencing ecosystems from the outside. (d) Currently, ecosystem models have begun to include humans (including society and human institutions) as parts of the ecosystem, and acknowledge the mutual influences that occur among all components in the model. © 2013 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. From Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science, Weathers, Strayer, and Likens (eds).

4 Figure 17.3 Technological advances in data measurement. Remote sensing offers new techniques to collect data at high spatial resolution over large landscape scales. This image was taken over an area of lowland rain forest and cleared lands on the island of Hawaii. Different colors highlight the distinct chemical signatures of trees and other vegetation, canopy heights, and crown sizes, which allow the estimation of relative size and amount of above ground biomass of different plant species. (Map from Townsend et al ) © 2013 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. From Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science, Weathers, Strayer, and Likens (eds).

5 Figure 17.4 Conducting science in a globally collaborative network. Inspired by the creation of a Facebook friendship map (upper map), the lower map illustrates global scientific collaborations. Each arc represents partnerships between scientists in different cities collected from studies, books, and trade journals found in Elsevier from 2005–2009. The Facebook map depicts how networking technology has created new and widespread opportunities for communication. Similar communication technologies are likely to be used by ecosystem scientists to expand and diversify worldwide collaborations, and to brighten dark areas of the lower map. Currently, most collaboration is centered in the Americas, Europe, and Japan. A zoomable very high- resolution map can be consulted at (Lower map created by Olivier H. Beauchesne.) © 2013 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. From Fundamentals of Ecosystem Science, Weathers, Strayer, and Likens (eds).