Chapter 12 Changing Concepts of the Body: An Overview of Sport and Play in Nineteenth-Century America Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

A Changing America 19th century: a time of rapid change Perspectives of changes: demographic, technological, modernization, and philosophical Demographic change: America a big “melting pot” variety of peoples and cultures

A Changing America: Technology Technological revolution Telegraph lines, railroads, steamboats Caused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city-oriented lifestyle Increased the level of literacy Mass production

Changing Philosophy: Emphasis on Material World Changes were a product of changing philosophy (metaphysics) awareness of the material aspects of life (focus on the here and now) Manifested by the use of technology to make life better Movement from country to city (urbanization) Use of rationality to learn to live better Use of philosophy to understand world

Technological Revolution 1820s: cities grew faster than the countryside Telegraph lines and railroads Steamboats Caused a radical change in lifestyle, a more city-oriented lifestyle Increased level of literacy allowed technology to improve communication, scientific information

Technology and the Rise of Sport Mass production produced cheap athletic equipment Sewing machine produced more uniforms Development of rubber produced balls Electricity produced more leisure time Cameras, telephone, typewriter increased coverage of sporting events Automobile allowed increased travel

Technology and the Rise of Sport Electrophotographic investigation showing a series of consecutive images of a harness racing horse in motion by Edward Muybridge. Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. An example of a Muybridge “moving picture”

Transcendentalism The mind and body are one Action is more important that contemplation Importance of physicality and the desire to live in the natural world Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Origin of Species All living things developed from a few simple forms Our physical selves are a consequence of our environment Our ability to think is a product of our biology and not a special gift Darwin’s work legitimized the use of senses and the power of reason to understand the material world

Charles Darwin Charles Darwin Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Pragmatists Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914) We come to know ideas through our senses Use the methods of science to discover the nature of the universe Williams James (1842-1910) Truth is relative to the individual No division between mind and body—training both are important

Rise of Sport in America Culture became urban and industrial American adults became fond of participating in recreational activities Cultural revolution caused sport to change along with everything else

Justification for Sport Emerged through religion Attitudes about religion and sport changed Development of “muscular Christianity” Competitiveness became desirable Sport viewed as “man builder” Health issues associated with living in the city Attitudes toward participation in sport changed

Muscular Christianity Attitude about physicality developed in England (early 1800s) Effected the popularity of sport in America Believed physical strength was godly Overcoming weakness was Christian and moral Sport activities viewed as effort to be good Christian Associated godliness with manliness Sport developed “manly” qualities

Development of Sports Some sports we enjoy in the 20th century were developed in the 19th century Certain sports created institutions which shaped organization of subsequent sports Horse and harness racing, baseball, rowing, boxing, and track and field

Harness Racing Harness Racing Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Harness Racing

Horse Racing First race to capture the hearts of Americans was in 1823: The great North-South horse race Eclipse, representing the North Henry, representing the South Eclipse defeated Henry in front of 60,000 spectators

Horse Racing: Eclipse American Eclipse Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Ball games: Cricket, Baseball, and Football Captured the hearts of Americans in early to mid-1800s Not easily accepted because Americans enjoyed individual sports Cricket Unpopular in America English game was more formalized, competitive, organized Associated with gambling Not exactly “manly”

Baseball Dominated cricket by 1855 Evolved from games of “rounders,” “town ball” Played as early as 1734 at Harvard Alexander Cartwright developed formal rules

Baseball Growth and competition caused a need for consistent rules 1858: First formal rules established 1871: National Association of Professional Players formed Men began to play baseball for money

Baseball Tobacco label showing Red Stocking Baseball Team, Game in Progress, ca. 1869 Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Football Derived from soccer and rugby Characterized by violent nature of the sport London Football Association Established rules and format 1873: Intercollegiate Association for Football was formed Walter Camp the “father” of American football

Amateurism—and Rowing Popular definition: An amateur is one who competes for the love of the sport and receives no money Actual movement in the U.S. developed in the 1860s and 1870s, when upper-class athletes refused to compete against middle-class and lower-class counterparts (class warfare) Example: Wealthy young men who rowed for social diversion did not want to compete against (and lose to) lower-class watermen who rowed for a living 1872 regatta excluded those who had ever rowed for money or depended on rowing for their livelihood

Race between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell Crew, Race Between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Race between University of Pennsylvania and Cornell

Amateurism Amateurism different by location Britain: Athletes separated by social class American: Athletes separated by economics Concept is no longer accepted as a valid distinction between athletes, but concept has dominated many American sports

Amateurism—and Track and Field Gatherings known as the Caledonian Games included athletic competition Events included running races, high jump and long jump, dancing, and precursors to modern hammer throw and shot put Popular but not amateur

Amateurism—and Track and Field New York Athletic Club formed in 1868 Emphasis on athletics in conjunction with the concept of amateurism Many similar clubs were formed Amateur Athletic Union was formed in 1888 to eliminate disputes between clubs regarding amateurism and to sponsor national championships By 1890s, AAU had control of all U.S. amateur competition