A rhetorical approach to teaching writing © 2015 Taylor & Francis

Language in use has two poles. 1. The first is based on the language-user’s communicative goals and the need to organize language with others in mind. 2. The second, (self-)expression, is self-oriented in terms of its organization. “Instead of considering the effect of our feelings and attitudes on others, we just let them loose. Instead of having to take care that everything’s clearly ordered, we can switch back and forward on impulse, to suit ourselves” (p. 133). © 2015 Taylor & Francis

TheoristFocus on the writerFocus on the reader John Dixon (1975)Self-expressionCommunication Peter Elbow (1973)Free-writing Linda Flower (1979)Writer-based proseReader-based prose Sheridan Blau (1988)Developing fluency and conquering fears A focus on audience and publication © 2015 Taylor & Francis

Genre refers to the different literary types, classes, sets, or categories of writing, each featuring its own group of attributes — in content, style, and form...The attributes of each genre are conditioned by the purpose for the writing and, except in a limited number of genres, are not obligatory – there is no one way to write a novel, for example, but there are common expectations of what a novel will contain. © 2015 Taylor & Francis

Genres are social processes. Texts are patterned in reasonably predictable ways according to patterns of social interaction in a particular culture. Social patterning and textual patterning meet as genres. Genres are textual interventions in society; and society itself would be nothing without language in all its patterned predictability. It follows that genres are not simply created by individuals in the moment of their utterance; to have meaning, they must be social. Individual speakers and writers act within a cultural context and with a knowledge of the different social effects of different types of oral and written text (p. 7). © 2015 Taylor & Francis

Genres are not just text types, but “typical rhetorical engagements with recurring situations” © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 a reaction to “process writing,”  a desire for social justice for the less powerful in society  the development of systemic functional linguistics as a way of thinking about grammar © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 Report  Explanation  Procedure  Discussion  Recount  Narrative © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 begin with a broad definition  identify their use (purpose and functions)  describe their typical structure (in terms of sequence)  identify a participant focus  note typical lexico-grammatical features. © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 It often lead to a transmission model of teaching  Stages that were identified suggested a lack of flexibility  Misleading descriptions of “genres”  Confusion of “genre” and “function”  Grammatical knowledge for its own sake © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 “Language function is the work you want a piece of language to do for you.”  “Function” is a term that you need to introduce into your literacy teaching before you introduce the term “genre.” © 2015 Taylor & Francis

Rhetoric is the art of making language work for you. © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 People construct texts to achieve a desired result with a particular audience  Textual form follows function  Texts are generated by contexts  Texts assume a social complicity between maker and reader  The expectations of participants in such acts of complicity become formalized in the conventions of genre  These conventions relate to such language features (at least in print texts) as layout, structure, punctuation, syntax and diction.  Knowledge about language (or grammatical knowledge) is justified as it supports the attainment of competence in relevant language features. © 2015 Taylor & Francis

Narrative is how a story is told. The how of story-telling involves techniques and conventions characteristic of narrative genres, e.g. short stories, anecdotes, news stories, parables, fables, novels, biographies. © 2015 Taylor & Francis

(i) Vantage Point: 1. Who tells the story. (Narrator) 2. Scope of the access. (Limited/omniscient) 3. Perspective in time (Removed/retrospective or immediate – tense) (ii) Content: 1. What are the significant settings? 2. Who are the significant characters? 3. What are the significant events and actions? © 2015 Taylor & Francis

1. The basis for sequence (plot). 2. The basis for juxtaposition. © 2015 Taylor & Francis

 Predicament: A difficult choice, often early in a narrative, where a character is presented with a choice involving unpalatable options.  Conflict: A situation where the interests of characters or groups of characters are opposed.  Complication: An unexpected problem or misfortune that interrupts the smooth flow of action of a story.  Resolution: A choice or event which sorts out a complication, one way or another.  Rising Action: The suspenseful part of a story leading up to its climax.  Turning Point: A crucial choice or event which changes the course of a story in a radical way.  Climax: The decisive moment in a story towards which events appear to be heading.  Denouement: The process of unravelling or winding down that occurs in the aftermath of a story’s climax. © 2015 Taylor & Francis