History of Marine Science Unit 2

Voyaging Travelling for a specific purpose First navigation was by celestial navigation- finding one’s position in reference to heavenly bodies. First Voyages 4000 BC Egyptians organize commerce on Nile 800 BC first cartographers make ocean charts

Library at Alexandria in Egypt First university Housed scrolls copied by law off ships that harbored. Eratosthenes Librarian whom calculated circumference of Earth. Realized if the sun was directly over one place (shining straight down), and over another place (shining at an angle) then the Earth must be curved Estimated Earth size within 8% of true value. Developed longitude and latitude present day longitude and latitude was developed by Hipparchus in 120 BC Hypatia Last librarian First woman recognized as mathematician, philosopher, and scientist Murdered library burned because of religious opposition to knowledge-Incalculable loss

Research Vessels Submersibles – small underwater vehicles ROV – remotely operated vehicle Bathysphere –lowered by a cable from a ship Drilling ships – take sediment cores Floating and Fixed platforms (FLIP – floating instrument platform) -gather data like temperature, salinity, density, and weather patterns

ROV bathysphere submersible

Fixed platform Drilling ship Floating platform

Other Research Instruments Airplanes Satellites – SEASAT: 1st satellite dedicated to ocean studies Echo-sounding Underwater cameras Side scan sonar – great for sunken ships

Early Man Marine life was a main food source for cultures living near the shore. The remains of many of the marine organisms that were eaten are found in their kitchen middens (trash) show us not only what they ate but also gives us an idea of the species and their abundance during that particular period of time.

Native American kitchen midden (Morro Bay, California) showing shells of seafood consumed by early cultures.

The Egyptians The Egyptians established sea trade throughout the Indian Ocean as early as 2300 B.C. ca 1938 - 1756 B.C. built the canal, the Isthmus of Suez, to navigate ships across land. It operated until 775 A.D. http://search.eb.com.ezproxy.uhd.edu/eb/article-22787

The Phoenicians Phoenicians: (from the Middle East) Sailed around Africa in 590 B.C. A stone carving from the 1st century AD shows the kind of ship that the Phoenicians used on the Mediterranean Sea They went outside the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean with their knowledge of tides, currents and seasonal changes.

The Greeks Greeks Herodotus published accurate map of Mediterranean region, ca 450 B.C. Alexander the Great, 336 B.C. Developed trade routes throughout the Mediterranean and expanded their empire under Alexander the Great http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/109.JPEG

The Greeks 200 B.C. Eratosthenes mathematically calculated the circumference of the Earth to be 40,000 km. It actually is 40,032 km. 2,200 years ago his math was good enough to be off only 32 km! Eratosthenes knew that at noon on the summer solstice the Sun is directly overhead at Syene (a city) He also knew the distance between Syene and Alexandria (another city) combined with his measurement of the solar angle a between the Sun and the vertical, he was able to calculate Earth's circumference. From Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Romans Studied and noted the phenomenon of erosion. Researched and documented the water cycle. Fall of the Roman Empire Were extremely superstitious and had a fear of intellectual inquiry. Europe lost most of its detailed understanding of geography.

The Arabs ca 200 B.C Islamic and Arab Merchants Experienced sailors traded throughout the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans. They are believed to have invented the lateen sail triangular sail important in early navigation. http://search.eb.com.ezproxy.uhd.edu/eb/art-12539/A-lateen-rigged-ship-used-by-Arab-merchants

Science Voyaging: Middle Ages 900 A.D. The Vikings crossed the North Atlantic to colonize Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland using the North Star to determine latitude Leif Erickson – Discovered North America 500 years before Columbus Exhumed Viking ship; Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway.

The Polynesians, 300 - 1500 A.D., used natural phenomena (winds patterns, currents, tides, stars, native animals …)to migrate around the South Pacific in boats. colonized islands west of Samoa, New Zealand, Easter Island, and Hawaii

The 'Age of Discovery' Between the mid 1400s and early 1900s was the time when humans explored Earth creating maps and charts and bringing back specimens A time of development of ocean-going ships and better navigation equipment Most of this exploration came out of Spain, Portugal, France, Scandinavia, Italy, & Germany.

Science Voyaging: 15th Century Chinese Sailed to influence and impress their neighbors. 1492 Columbus Sailed for Spain, sailed the Atlantic and “discovered” the Americas. 1497 Vasco de Gama Sailed for Portugal, sailed around Africa from Portugal to India to establish trade routes. 1513 Balboa Settled the first European Colony in Panama. He crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513. He became the first European to lead an expedition known to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World. Europeans searched for the Northwest passage through northern Canada to trade with Asia; explored the Arctic.

Columbus: Hero or ? “Gold is most excellent; gold constitutes treasure; and he who has it does all he wants in the world, and can even lift souls up to Paradise.” – Christopher Columbus, 1503 letter to the king and queen of Spain.

Science Voyaging 16th Century 1519 - Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan the 1st European expedition to circumnavigate the world. 237 men began the voyage; 18 returned. Magellan actually died before the journey was finished, but his crew returned in 1522. http://www.solarnavigator.net/history/explorers_history/ferdinand_magellan_charcoal_fur_robe.jpg

Magellan The “sea” becomes a new place for empires to interact. It was the Era of trade with, and plunder of, the Aztecs and Incas for their gold and silver by the Spanish. The English and the Dutch pirates attack the Spanish fleets.

Age of Exploration 1480-1610

Science Voyaging 18th Century John Harrison in 1728 developed the first chronometer. This was a timepiece governed by a spring instead of a pendulum allowed longitude to be known 4 are still located in Greenwich, England, which is the 0 meridian. If your noon is before Greenwich noon then you are to the east, if your noon is after Greenwich then you are to the west. Latitude can be known by stars (angle between your eyes, horizon and north star).

Science Voyaging 18th Century 1762 American Ben Franklin created a chart of the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream gives the US its warm climate, bringing warm water north from the equator.

Ben Franklin’s Gulf Stream Map

Ben Franklin’s Map? Benjamin Franklin made his map because he wanted to speed the mail across the Atlantic. He was the first Postmaster General in the U.S. “You may delay but time will not.” Benjamin Franklin

Science Voyaging 18th Century 1768 James Cook of the British Royal Navy First marine scientist charted New Zealand, many islands, and the Great Barrier Reef of Australia sailing upon the HMS Endeavor Recorded and successfully interpreted natural history, anthropology, and oceanography with accuracy and thoroughness. Insisted on cleanliness and made his men eat limes to ward off scurvy (Vitamin C deficiency)

Science Voyaging 19th Century 1831 Charles Darwin HMS Beagle Explored Galapagos Islands led to the origin of species and the modern theories of evolution. http://uk.gizmodo.com/charles_darwin_l.jpg

Science Voyaging 19th Century 1838 US began the US Exploring Expedition with the unpopular Lt. Charles Wilkes Expedition was to gain knowledge and disprove theory that Earth was hollow and there were holes in the poles. Information obtained made up 19 volumes of maps, text, and illustrations. 1840 Matthew Maury of US Navy Father of Oceanography used sounding with a weighted line to discover the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a hidden range of underwater mountains Made charts and sailing directions 1855 published the Physical Geography of the Sea Monument in Richmond, VA Edward Forbes -1800’s Predicted different types of plant and animal life at different depths of the ocean. Introduced the idea of dredging.

Science Voyaging 19th Century 1872-1876 Charles Wyville Thomson and John Murray (who coined the term oceanography) set out on famous HMS Challenger Expedition for British Took samples and disproved theory that there were no organisms below 1,800 feet due to pressure and lack of light. Discovered 4,727 new species, tested water, made soundings, 151 trawls, currents, meteorology, sediments, and charted reefs. The first pure oceanographic investigation that stimulated the science of marine biology. Complied a 50 volume set of information still used today gathered more data in its time than all other data to date. Expedition is also still ongoing today and is considered the first “only for science expedition” this is the voyage that discovered the world’s deepest ocean trench, the Marianas Trench, now sometimes called the Challenger Deep.

Challenger Expedition

The map below shows the Route of HMS Challenger(in red); the expedition lasted 1,000 days and covered more than 68,000 nautical miles Challenger Expedition England’s Royal Society obtained the use of HMS Challenger to study sea floor characteristics, chemical composition of sea water, and life at all levels.

Science Voyaging 19th Century 1895 Fridtjof Nansen studied the polar oceans aboard the Fram, a ship built to withstand crushing ice confirmed the relationship between whales and plankton- from a whaling stand point Proved polar ice flowed. Entered ice by Alaska, exited by Greenland three years and over 1000 miles later. Determined that the North Pole is landless.

Oceanography in the Twentieth Century Support by wealthy individuals Scripps Institution of Oceanography Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Rapid advances during World War II Office of Naval Research (ONR) and National Science Foundation (NSF) funding International Geophysical Year (IGY) cooperation Satellites Deep Sea Drilling Program National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Science Voyaging 20th Century 1898 John Holland invents 1st gas engine/battery powered submarine bought by US government in 1900. The world wars were the catalyst for US oceanographic research Development of technology including electronic equipment, deep sea drilling programs, (1916) SONAR, use of GPS (global positioning system) and satellites.

Science Voyaging 20th Century 1914 British explorer Sir Ernest Shackelton aboard the Endurance pursues a dream of crossing Antarctica on foot by way of the South Pole. 1925 German Meteor Expedition the first to use echo sounding (depth and contour) to discover that the ocean was rugged, not flat as thought. 1943 Jacque Cousteau and Emil Gagnan invent the “aqualung”

Science Voyaging 20th Century  1960 Jacque Piccard and Don Walsch in the US Trieste bathyscaphe (small submarine) descend 35,801 ft. into the deepest part of the ocean within the Marianas trench NO ONE HAS BEEN BACK SINCE!

".... I saw a wonderful thing. Lying on the bottom just beneath us was some type of flatfish… Even as I saw him, his two round eyes on top of his head spied us…” “Why should he have eyes? Merely to see phosphorescence?...Here, in an instant, was the answer that biologists had asked for the decades. Could life exist in the greatest depths of the ocean? It could!” - J. Picard

Science Voyaging 20th Century  1962 Alvin Designed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute First deep sea submersible to carry passengers has traveled around the world completing 4,162 dives. has mechanical arms and in 1966 helped to locate a H-bomb that was lost in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1979 discovered black smokers on the sea floor.

“Black Smokers" are named for the soot-like appearance of the ejected material billowing out of the "chimneys". Super-heated water from the Earth’s crust with very high concentrations of dissolved minerals. As the super-heated water meets the very cold ocean-bottom water, the dissolved minerals precipitate out and settle onto the rock around them. This causes the chimneys to grow in height over time.

Science Voyaging 20th Century  1968 Glomar Challenger confirmed evidence of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics from core drilling samples.

Science Voyaging 20th Century 1985 JASON (a satellite) found and documented the wreck of the Titanic. JJ attached to Alvin to go inside the ship 1989 - Japan launched the Shinkai 6500 - can carry a crew without a tether (rope) up to 21,414 ft deep into the ocean (a world record).

JOIDES Resolution (1985 to present) Ocean Drilling Program drill ship

Offshore Drilling Platform

MBARI Scripps Moss Landing San Diego

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) invented SCUBA during World War II If we go on the way we have, the fault is our greed... if we are not willing [to change], we will disappear from the face of the globe, to be replaced by the insect. ~ Jacques Cousteau

Science Voyaging 21st Century In 2006, a Chinese mineral company (COMRA) designed a craft to reach 23,000 ft

Conclusion The ocean represents the Earth’s last frontier for exploration and the key to understanding the future of our planet. The human race depends on the life and sustainability of the ocean for economic, biological, and environmental stability. The world of Aquatic science is ever reaching for new discoveries in this blue realm.