1 Long-Term Memory  Introduction  STM versus LTM  Episodic Memory  Semantic Memory  Procedural Memory  Encoding in Long-Term Memory  Depth of Processing (or Levels of Processing)  Self Reference Effect  Encoding Specificity Principle  Emotions, Moods, and Memory

2 Long-Term Memory 2  Retrieval in Long-Term Memory  Explicit versus Implicit Memory  Very Long-Term Memory  Expertise  Amnesia  Autobiographical Memory  Flashbulb Memories  Schemas & Autobiographical Memory  Source Monitoring  Eyewitness Testimony

3 Tulving’s Memory Model  Episodic  Semantic  Procedural

4 Encoding in LTM  Levels (depth) of processing  Self-Reference Effect  Encoding Specificity Principle  Emotion and Memory  Mood and Memory

5 Levels of Processing Framework  Craik & Lockhart (1972)  Type of Processing  Physical Processing > shallow  Meaningful Processing > deep  Trace byproduct of processing  Deeper processing leads to more durable traces

6 Levels of Processing Demonstration

7 Levels of Processing Demo Picture

8 Maintenance Rehearsal vs. Elaborative Rehearsal

9 Research on LOP and Similar Themes  Tulving (1975)  Generation Effect (1978)  e.g.lightd_ _ k (generation) vs. lightdark (read)  Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)

10 Judge how wide the person’s nose is:

11 Picture of Face with Narrow Nose

12 Picture of Face with Wide Nose

13 Judge how honest this face is

14 Explanations  Distinctiveness  Elaboration

15 Self-Reference Effect  Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997)  Process list of words:  Physical characteristics  Acoustic characteristics  Semantic characteristics  Self - (reference)  Robust effect  Symons & Johnson (1997)  Meta-analysis  Explanations

16 Rogers, et. al., 1977

17 Revisions to LOP  Moscovitch & Craik (1975) -Encoding Specificity Principle  Bransford & Franks - Transfer Appropriate Processing

18 Effects of Context  Geiselman & Glenny (1977)  Outshining hypothesis

19 Effects of Context  Baddeley - scuba diving  Remembering names - faces as contextual cues  Practical Application - imaginary reinstatement

20 Geiselman & Glenny (1997) Encoding (Imagined) female voicemale voice Test (Actual Speaker) malefemalemalefemale

21 Geiselman & Glenny Results

22 How can we use the Encoding Specificity Principle to improve memory for events?

23 Mood & Memory  Memory for items differing in emotion  Pollyanna Principle  Mood Congruence - individual differences studies - experimental manipulation of moods  Mood-State Dependence - Claudia Ucros (1989) - meta-analysis - other variables

24 Study each of the words that appear PictureCommerceMotionVillageVesselWindowNumberReindeer Custom Fellow Advice Dozen Flower Kitchen Bookstore

25 Explicit Memory Measures

26 Implicit Memory Measures Picture, Commerce, Motion, Village,Vessel,Window, Number, Reindeer, Custom, Fellow, Advice, Dozen, Flower, Kitchen, Bookstore

27 Explicit vs Implicit Measures of Memory  Explicit memory measures:  recall  recognition  Implicit memory measures:  Word fragment completion  Stem completion  Repetition priming  Role of conscious, deliberate recollection

28 The Critical Distinction  Explicit memory tasks require conscious, deliberate recollection of previous experiences  Implicit memory tasks do not require conscious recollection of previous events e.g., b_ _ k

29 Research with Amnesics  Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)  Tasks explicit - recognition, recall implicit - mutilated word guessing - stem completion - stem completion e.g. st_ _ _ e.g. st_ _ _  Replicated  Dissociation

30 Dissociation  A variable has an effect on one type of test, but little or no effect on another type of test  A variable has one type of effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by Test B

31 Research with Normal Adults  Levels of processing and the implicit / explicit distincion  Picture Superiority Effect  Current Status - explanations - applications

32 Levels of Processing: Explicit/Implict Tests truck Semantic (pleasant vs unpleasant) Physical, perceptual Task (# syllables or Upper/lower case?) Higher recall, recognition * ___ Higher--or at least equal performance* ___Implicit Memory Test (e.g. t_u_k) Explicit Memory Test

33 versus. Elephant Picture Superiority Effect 1. 1.Subjects view a series of pictures or a series of words 2. 2.Subjects recall stimuli by writing down names of items -- recall of pictures is higher than recall of words.

34 Weldon & Roediger (1987)

35 Weldon & Roediger Graph (1987)

36 Explanations  No agreed-upon explanation  Context & encoding specificity  Multiple memory systems  e.g. Tulving  Neuroscience account

37 Applications of implicit / explicit memory research to real life problems?

38 Ad for Experimental Psychologists

39 Expertise  Influence on LTM  Definition - consistent superior performance - deliberate practice - deliberate practice - at least 10 years - at least 10 years  Domain specific  10-year rule

40 Context-Specific Nature of Expertise  Skilled memory effect  Chess -De Groot -Chase & Simon (1973): 5 second task typical vs. random positions  Similar effects in many domains: -basketball-x-rays -circuit diagrams, etc.  SF (digits only)

41 An Expert Waiter - JC  Ericsson (1985)  J.C tops  Comparison of J.C. to college students  Critical difference = memory strategies and knowledge  Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Bauder)

42 Expert Waiters Study: A Trial

43 JC’s Strategies

44 Characteristics of Experts

45 Autobiographical Memory  Memory for events and issues related to yourself  Naturally occurring events  Rapidly growing interest  Wide variety of topics  High ecological validity

46 Topics  Flashbulb Memories  Brown & Kulik (1977)  High level of surprise  High level of emotional arousal  Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)  Schemas & Autobiographical Memory  Generalized, abstract knowledge structures  Memory for common, ordinary events  Variable instantiation  False memories  Consistency bias  Repisodic Memory

47 Topics  Source Monitoring  Origin of a memory  Actual versus imagined action  Marsh & Colleagues (1997)  Henkel & Colleagues (2000)

48 Flashbulb Memory Demonstration

49 Schematization of Memory

50 Eyewitness Testimony  The ‘gentleman bandit’ (1979)  Identifying faces  Recognition accuracy  Time and attention  Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)  Length of retention interval  Intervening info  Misleading post-event info

51 Misinformation Effect  Caused by misleading information given after viewing an earlier event  RI = retroactive inhibition or interference Classic experiment - Loftus (1978)

52 Loftus (1978)

53 Loftus (1978) Results