Learning Language Chapter 9

How is Language Possible? Theories Defining language Design Features Primates Acquisition of Language Speech Sounds When is language possible?… How is language possible?….

Contemporary Theories Theoretical linguistics: Still speculative Language- evolved at once Language- innate feature in humans Children born with universal grammar Only need to acquire specifics Linguistic anthropology: Uses all four fields of anthropology Language too complicated to have developed all at once Language probably evolved slowly along with culture Children born with ability to learn language Learning takes place in social situations.

Defining Language Language Communication Sending Yes Receiving Possible Responding Socially learned No Complex grammar Lies, games, etc.

Defining Language Hockett’s Design Features of language 1960s Defining what is unique to humans Thirteen features Four are unique to human language.

Design Features of Language Not Unique to Humans Vocal/auditory channel Broadcast transmission / directional reception Rapid fading Interchangeability Total feedback Specialization Semanticity Arbitrariness Discreteness. Unique to Humans: (according to Hockett) Displacement Productivity Traditional transmission Duality of patterning / k + æ + t + s /.

Design Features and the Emergence of Human Language The idea of blending Combining calls to establish productivity Starting from closed calls (limited, specific) A + B = A + B danger + food = danger + food Moving to blended calls (prelanguage) A + B = AB danger + food = dangerous food breakfast + lunch = brunch Making duality of patterning possible Isolation of units for recombining A + B + C = ABC, CBA, BAC, ACB

Primate Communication Experiments: Chimpanzees Gorillas Orangutans What this tells us about language Duality of patterning is uniquely human What it tells us about language origins Pre-language abilities of humans and other primates probably similar.

Acquisition of Language Development of linguistic ability is linked to maturation of cognitive processes Sounds as abstract and arbitrary can be used to stand for objects and ideas Chomsky (p.247): “speaker’s ability to produce & understand instantly new sentences that are not similar to those previously heard… It seems plain that language acquisition is based on the child’s discovery of what from a formal point of view is a deep & abstract theory- a generative grammar of his/her language” Jean Piaget & Lev Vygotsky’s theories Individual cognition & social needs as driving force for language

Children and Language 3 days – recognizing parents’ sounds 3 months – cooing, playing with intonation 6 months – babbling, playing with sounds 9 months – beginning signs 1 year – recognizable spoken words & speak single words (Holophrastic) 15 months – naming “explosion” 2 years – simple sentences, displacement Then – negatives, questions, clauses. Holophrastic- each word expresses broad semantic and contextual meanings- like up, down.

Theories about Language in Children Innatist theories Language hard-wired in brain Behaviorist theories Stimulus and reward Cognitivist theories Concepts come first The theory theory Children observe and build theories Different languages - different theories?

Complex Grammars Cognitive development and experiential maturation stimulate children to expand their linguistic abilities Two important themes: Development awareness that organization w/in sentences is significant Transferring learning from one context to others by processes of analogy & rule generalization.

WHEN is Language Possible? Connected to HOW Involves research into brain… And vocal tract… And origins of culture….

The Human Brain Oldest part of cortex Cortex Newer part of cortex Controls long term memory And emotion Newer part of cortex “Neocortex” Controls language 80% of human brain Divided into lobes Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital. Cortex The convoluted surface of the brain Two millimeters thick Surface area 1.5 square yards Contains 100 million neurons

Lateralization & Language Two cerebral hemispheres Connected by corpus callosum Left hemisphere association calculation analysis language Right hemisphere touch space music contexts for language use.

Language Areas of the Brain Broca’s area Clarity of speech Function words Some word order Wernicke’s area Understanding words Producing sentences.

The Human Vocal Tract Lowering of the larynx Where vocal cords are located Lengthening of the pharynx More space for tongue Increased vowel resonance Differentiation of vowels: [i] [a] [u] Human infants born with high larynx Begins to lower at three months Reaches adult location by 3-4 years Except in adult males: further descent at adolescence.

The Fossil Record Evidence from basicranium Where muscles attach More curved = lower larynx Australopithecus (1.5 mya) not curved Homo habilis (2 mya) no data Homo erectus (1.6 mya) some curve Early Homo sapiens (400,000 ya) definite curve Homo sapiens sapiens (125,000 ya) ditto Neanderthal (130,000 ya) no curve.

Origins of Culture Associating language with complex tools evolution of tool design provides clues complexity of Upper Paleolithic tools requires description (vs imitation) Associating language with cultural complexity art, music, ritual, cooperative hunting/childcare.

The Fossil Record Australopithecus (1.5 mya) first stone tools Homo habilis (2 mya) control of fire Homo erectus (1.6 mya) organized hunting? Early Homo sapiens (400,000 ya) shelters, burials Homo sapiens sapiens (125,000 ya) knitting, basketweaving Neanderthal (130,000 ya) burials, music.