Harappan society and its neighbors, ca B.C.E.

Foundations of Harappan Society ► The Indus River  Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges ► Major society built by Dravidian peoples, BCE  Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of poultry  Decline after 1900 BCE ► Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo- Daro (mouth of Indus River)  70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

Mohenjo-Daro Ruins ► Population c. 40,000 ► Regional center  Layout, architecture suggests public purpose  Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage ► Standardized weights evident throughout region ► Specialized labor ► Trade

Harapan Society and Culture ► Evidence of social stratification  Dwelling size, decoration ► Harappan Civilization: matriarchal?  Influence on later Indian culture ► Goddesses of fertility ► Possible east/west distinctions

Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization ► Reasons for disappearance unclear  Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil  Earthquakes?  Flooding? ► Evidence of unburied dead ► Disappearance by 1500 BCE

The Early Aryans ► Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle  Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries later ► Religious and Literary works: The Vedas  Sanskrit: sacred tongue  Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali  Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda ► 1,028 hymms to gods

The Vedic Age ► Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”)  Aryans fighting Dravidians  Also Aryans fighting each other ► Chiefdoms: Rajas ► Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south  Development of iron metallurgy  Increasing reliance on agriculture ► Tribal connections evolve into political structures

Varna: The Caste System ► Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians  Brahmin, Priest  Kshatriya, Warrior  Vaishya, Merchant  Sudra, Commoner  Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs” ► Jati subsystem of castes  Related to urbanization, increasing social and economic complexity

Aryan Religion ► Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god ► Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods  Role of Brahmins important ► C. 800 BCE some movement away from sacrificial cults  Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

Teachings of the Upanishads ► Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions ► Composed BCE, some later collections until 13 th century CE ► Brahman: the Universal Soul ► Samsara: reincarnation ► Karma: accounting for incarnations ► Moksha: mystical ecstacy ► Relationship to system of Varna

The Mauryan and Gupta empires 321 B.C.E.-550 C.E.

India Before the Mauryan Dynasty ► 520 BCE Persian Emperor Darius conquers north-west India ► Introduces Persian ruling pattern ► 327 Alexander of Macedon destroys Persian Empire in India ► Troops mutiny, departs after 2 years  Political power vacuum

Kingdom of Magadha ► Most significant remaining kingdom after Alexander’s departure ► Central Ganges plain ► Economic strength  Agriculture  Trade in Ganges valley, Bay of Bengal ► Dominated surrounding regions in north- eastern India

Chandragupta Maurya ► Took advantage of power vacuum left by Alexander ► Overthrew Magadha rulers ► Expanded kingdom to create 1 st unified Indian empire  Mauryan Dynasty

Chandragupta’s Government ► Advisor Kautalya ► Recorded in Arthashastra, manual of political statecraft ► Foreign policies, economics ► Domestic policies  Network of spies ► Legend: Chandragupta retires to become a monk, starves himself to death

Ashoka Maurya ► Grandson of Chandragupta ► Represents high point of Mauryan Empire, r BCE ► Expanded empire to include all of Indian subcontinent except for south ► Positive rulership integrated Indian society

Decline of the Mauryan Empire ► Economic crisis follows death of Ashoka ► High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue ► Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries ► Regions begin to abandon Mauryan Empire  Disappears by 185 BCE

Regional Kingdom: Bactria ► Northwestern India ► Ruled by Greek-speaking descendants of Alexander’s campaigns ► Intense cultural activity accompanies active trade

Regional Kingdom: Kush ► Northern India/Central Asia ► C CE ► Maintained silk road network

The Gupta Dynasty ► Based in Magadha ► Founded by Chandra Gupta (no relation to Chandragupta Maurya), c. 320 CE ► Slightly smaller than Mauryan Empire ► Highly decentralized leadership

Gupta Decline ► Frequent invasions of White Huns, 5 th c. CE ► Gupta Dynasty disintegrates along regional fault lines ► Smaller local kingdoms dominate until Mughal Empire founded in 16 th c.

Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin ► Seasonal sea trade expands  Spring/winter winds blow from south-west, fall/winter winds blow from north-west ► Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Mediterranean

Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin ► Seasonal sea trade expands  Spring/winter winds blow from south-west, fall/winter winds blow from north-west ► Trade from Asia to Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Mediterranean

Society: Gender Relations ► Patriarchy entrenched ► Child marriage common (8 year old girls married to men in 20s) ► Women encouraged to remain in private sphere

Jainism ► Vardhamana Mahavira, BCE ► Abandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life ► Promotes 7 th c. movement based on Upanishads ► Emphasis on selfless living, concern for all beings

Ahimsa ► Principle of extreme non-violence ► Jainists sweep earth, strain water, use slow movements to avoid killing insects ► Ahimsa continues to inspire modern movements (Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

Early Buddhism ► Siddhartha Gautama, c BCE ► Encountered age, sickness, death, then monastic life ► Abandoned comfortable life to become a monk

The Buddha and his Followers ► Begins teaching new doctrine c. 528 BCE ► Followers owned only robes, food bowls ► Life of wandering, begging, meditation ► Establishment of monastic communities

Buddhist Doctrine: The Dharma ► The Four Noble Truths  all life is suffering  there is an end to suffering  removing desire removes suffering  this may be done through the eight-fold path  (right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration)

Ashoka’s Support of Buddhism ► Personal conversion to Buddhism ► Disillusioned after violent war with Kalinga ► Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism in court ► Material support for Buddhist institutions, missionary activities

Changes in Buddhist thought ► 3 rd c. BCE – 1 st c. CE  Buddha considered divine  Institution of Boddhisatvas (“saints”)  Charitable donations to monasteries regarded as pious activity

Spread of Mahayana Buddhism ► Mahayana (“greater vehicle”), newer development  India, China, Japan, Korea, central Asia ► Hinayana (“lesser vehicle,” also Theravada), earlier version  Ceylon, Burma, Thailand

Emergence of Popular Hinduism ► Composition of epics from older oral traditions  Mahabharata  Ramayana ► Emphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations