Figure 6-1 Page 101

Figure 6-2 Page 102 Cool air mass Warm air mass Anvil top

Descending cool air Severe thunderstorm Severe thunderstorms can trigger a number of smaller tornadoes Rising warm air Tornado forms when cool downdraft and warm updraft of air meet and interact Rising updraft of air Warm, moist air drawn in Figure 6-3 Page 103

Figure 6-4 Page 104 Rising winds exit from the storm at high altitudes. The calm central eye usually is about 24 kilometers (15 miles) wide. Gales circle the eye at speeds of up to 320 kilometers (200 miles) per hour. Moist surface winds spiral in towards the center of the storm Figure 6-4 Page 104

© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning Average Precipitation Climate is the average weather patterns for an area over a long period of time (30 - 1,000,000 years). It is determined by Average Precipitation and Average Temperature which are influenced by latitude altitude ocean currents and affects Figure 6-6 Page 105 what they grow and eat where people live how people live

Figure 6-6 Page 106 Polar (ice) Warm temperate Highland Warm ocean current Cold ocean current Subarctic (snow) Dry Major upwelling zones Figure 6-6 Page 106 Cool temperate Tropical River

Click to view animation. Ocean currents and climate animation. Click to view animation. Animation

(sun aims directly at equator) 23.5º Spring (sun aims directly at equator) Winter (northern hemisphere tilts away from sun) Solar radiation Summer (northern hemisphere tilts toward sun) Figure 6-7 Page 106 Fall (sun aims directly at equator)

Air circulation and climate animation. Click to view animation. Animation

60ºN Cold deserts Westerlies Forests 30ºN Northeast trades Hot deserts Equator Southeast trades Hot deserts 30ºs Westerlies Forests Figure 6-8 Page 107 Cold deserts 60ºS

Falls, is compressed, warms Rises, expands, cools LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE Heat released radiates to space Condensation and precipitation Cool, dry air Falls, is compressed, warms Rises, expands, cools Warm, dry air Hot, wet air Flows toward low pressure, picks up moisture and heat HIGH PRESSURE Moist surface warmed by sun LOW PRESSURE Figure 6-9 Page 107

Tropical deciduous forest Moist air rises, cools, and releases Cell 3 North Cold, dry air falls Moist air rises — rain Polar cap Cell 2 North Arctic tundra Evergreen coniferous forest 60° Cool, dry air falls Temperate deciduous forest and grassland Cell 1 North Desert 30° Tropical deciduous forest Moist air rises, cools, and releases moisture as rain Tropical rain forest 0° Equator Tropical deciduous forest 30° Desert Cell 1 South Temperate deciduous forest and grassland Cool, dry air falls 60° Cell 2 South Polar cap Figure 6-10 Page 107 Cold, dry air falls Moist air rises — rain Cell 3 South

Air circulation interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

Wind Upwelling Nutrients Movement of surface water Wind Diving birds Fish Upwelling Zooplankton Phytoplankton Nutrients Figure 6-11 Page 108

Upwelling along western coasts animation. Click to view animation. Animation

Warm water Thermocline Cold water Normal Conditions Surface winds blow westward EQUATOR Warm waters pushed westward SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA Warm water Thermocline Cold water Figure 6-12a Page 108 Normal Conditions

Warm water Thermocline Cold water El Niño Conditions Winds weaken, causing updrafts and storms Drought in Australia and Southeast Asia EQUATOR Warm water flow stopped or reversed SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA Warm water deepens off South America Warm water Thermocline Cold water Figure 6-12b Page 108 El Niño Conditions

El Niño Drought Unusually high rainfall Unusually warm periods Figure 6-13 Page 109

(c) As concentrations of greenhouse gases rise, their molecules absorb and emit more infrared radiation, which adds more heat to the lower atmosphere. (a) Rays of sunlight penetrate the lower atmosphere and warm the earth's surface. (b) The earth's surface absorbs much of the incoming solar radiation and degrades it to longer-wavelength infrared (IR) radiation, which rises into the lower atmosphere. Some of this IR radiation escapes into space as heat and some is absorbed by molecules of greenhouse gases and emitted as even longer wavelength IR radiation, which warms the lower atmosphere. Figure 6-14 Page 110

Greenhouse effect interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

Dry habitats Moist habitats Prevailing winds pick up moisture from an ocean. On the windward side of a mountain range, air rises, cools, and releases moisture. On the leeward side of the mountain range, air descends, warms, and releases little moisture. Dry habitats Moist habitats Figure 6-15 Page 110

Figure 6-16 Page 111 Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn Semidesert, arid grassland Arctic tundra (polar grasslands) Desert Boreal forest (taiga), evergreen coniferous forest (e.g., montane coniferous forest) Tropical rain forest, tropical evergreen forest Mountains (complex zonation) Temperate deciduous forest Tropical deciduous forest Ice Figure 6-16 Page 111 Temperate grassland Tropical scrub forest Dry woodlands and shrublands (chaparral) Tropical savanna, thorn forest

Altitude Latitude Figure 6-18 Page 112 Mountain Ice and snow Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Deciduous Forest Latitude Tropical Forest Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow Figure 6-18 Page 112

Tropical desert (Saudi Arabia) Figure 6-19a Page 113 Tropical desert (Saudi Arabia)

Temperate desert (Reno, Nevada) Figure 6-19b Page 113 Temperate desert (Reno, Nevada)

Polar desert (northwest China) Figure 6-19c Page 113 Polar desert (northwest China)

Diamondback rattlesnake Red-tailed hawk Producer to primary consumer Gambel's quail Primary to secondary consumer Yucca Agave Jack rabbit Collared lizard Secondary to higher-level consumer Prickly pear cactus Roadrunner All producers and consumers to decomposers Diamondback rattlesnake Darkling beetle Bacteria Fungi Figure 6-20 Page 114 Kangaroo rat

Natural Capital Degradation Deserts Large desert cities Soil destruction by off-road vehicles and urban development Soil sanitization from irrigation Depletion of underground water supplies Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Storage of toxic and radioactive wastes Large arrays of solar cells and solar collectors used to produce electricity Figure 6-21 Page 115

Tropical grassland (savanna) Figure 6-22a Page 115 Tropical grassland (savanna) (Harare, Zimbabwe)

Temperate grassland (Lawrence, Kansas) Figure 6-22b Page 115 Temperate grassland (Lawrence, Kansas)

Polar grassland (arctic tundra) Figure 6-22c Page 115 Polar grassland (arctic tundra) (Fort Yukon, Alaska)

Dry Grassland Moist Grassland Cape buffalo Wildebeest Beisa oryx Topi Warthog Thompson's gazelle Waterbuck Grant's zebra Dry Grassland Moist Grassland Figure 6-23a Page 116

Dry Thorn Scrub Riverine Forest Giraffe African elephant Gerenuk Black rhino Dik-dik East African eland Blue duiker Greater kudu Bushbuck Dry Thorn Scrub Riverine Forest Figure 6-23b Page 116

Golden eagle Producer to primary consumer Pronghorn antelope Primary to secondary consumer Coyote Grasshopper sparrow Secondary to higher-level consumer Grasshopper All producers and consumers to decomposers Blue stem grass Prairie dog Bacteria Fungi Figure 6-24 Page 117 Prairie coneflower

DO NOT POST TO INTERNET Figure 6-25 Page 118

Snowy owl Figure 6-26 Page 119 Moss campion Long-tailed jaeger Producer to primary consumer Grizzly bear Caribou Primary to secondary consumer Mosquito Snowy owl Secondary to higher-level consumer Arctic fox Horned lark Willow ptarmigan All consumers and producers to decomposers Dwarf willow Lemming Mountain cranberry Figure 6-26 Page 119 Moss campion

Natural Capital Degradation Grasslands Conversion of savanna and temperate grasslands to cropland Release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning and conversion of grassland to cropland Overgrazing of tropical and temperate grasslands by livestock Damage to fragile arctic tundra by oil production, air and water pollution, and off-road vehicles Figure 6-27 Page 120

Tropical rain forest (Manaus, Brazil) Figure 6-28a Page 136 Tropical rain forest (Manaus, Brazil)

Temperate deciduous forest (Nashville, Tennessee) Figure 6-28b Page 120 Temperate deciduous forest (Nashville, Tennessee)

Polar evergreen coniferous forest Figure 6-28c Page 120 Polar evergreen coniferous forest (boreal forest, taiga) (Moscow, Russia)

Harpy eagle Ocelot Blue and gold macaw Producer to primary consumer Primary to secondary consumer Squirrel monkeys Climbing monstera palm Secondary to higher-level consumer Katydid Slaty-tailed trogon Green tree snake Tree frog All producers and consumers to decomposers Ants Bromeliad Fungi Figure 6-29 Page 121 Bacteria

Interaction in a rainforest interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

Canopy Understory Figure 6-30 Page 122 45 Emergent layer Harpy eagle 40 35 Toco toucan Canopy 30 Height (meters) 25 20 Understory Wooly opossum 15 10 Brazilian tapir Shrub layer 5 Black-crowned antpitta Ground layer Figure 6-30 Page 122

Broad-winged hawk Producer to primary consumer Hairy woodpecker Primary to secondary consumer Gray squirrel White oak White-footed mouse Secondary to higher-level consumer Metallic wood-boring beetle and Metallic wood- boring beetle and larvae White-tailed deer Mountain winterberry All producers and consumers to decomposers Shagbark hickory May beetle Racer Fungi Long-tailed weasel Wood frog Figure 6-31 Page 123 Bacteria

Blue jay Great horned owl Producer to primary consumer Primary to secondary consumer Balsam fir Marten Moose White spruce Secondary to higher-level consumer Wolf Bebb willow All producers and consumers to decomposers Pine sawyer beetle and larvae Snowshoe hare Fungi Starflower Figure 6-32 Page 124 Bacteria Bunchberry

Natural Capital Degradation Forests Clearing and degradation of tropical forests for agriculture, livestock grazing, and timber harvesting Clearing of temperate deciduous forests in Europe, Asia, and North America for timber, agriculture, and urban development Clearing of evergreen coniferous forests in North America, Finland, Sweden, Canada, Siberia, and Russia Conversion of diverse forests to less biodiverse tree plantations Damage to soils from off-road vehicles Figure 6-33 Page 125

Natural Capital Degradation Mountains Landless poor migrating uphill to survive Timber extraction Mineral resource extraction Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Increasing tourism (such as hiking and skiing) Air pollution from industrial and urban centers Increased ultraviolet radi- ation from ozone depletion Soil damage from off-road vehicles Figure 6-34 Page 126

Coastal breezes interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

El Nino Southern Oscillation interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

Greenhouse effect interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

Biomes map interaction. Click to view animation. Animation

Prairie food web interaction. Click to view animation. Animation