Union Flag of the United Kingdom an imperial flag

‘Forging a Nation’ - Linda Colley Britons From 1707 Both the creation of a strong and vibrant Nation-state commercial opportunity (of Empire, in large part) religious security constitutional freedoms domestic security freedom from invasion and, a shotgun marriage – defined by enforcement within and Paradoxically, against ‘other’ empire intricately linked with nationalism, in this modern democracy

Imperial Motives: early commercial empire “money, money, money, it is a rich man’s world” Economic motives: trade raw materials markets Political motives: geopolitical and military diffuse internal tensions Cultural justification:missionary campaigns the ‘civilizing’ mission

How does ‘other’ define a nation? In this ‘imagined community’: consisting of its own various ethnicities Wars were of central importance:avoided major invasion avoided conscription created consensus Paton, Sir Joseph N. In Memoriam Continental Wars:with France who supported the Stuarts Seven Years War supported American colonists after 1778 colonial conflicts: N.A., south Asia, Africa, Mediterranean Napoleonic Wars (unattributed) 18C French print

War is expensive …. ‘Family of Sir William Young’ by Johan Zoffany, R.A. ( ) Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. as is the infrastructure of a modern state

…but it was worth it pepper in Sumatra, but increasingly focused on India – not to replace but complement trade – 1607 Indian textiles to market in spice Islands, as well as pepper and indigo In India, the English negotiated with the Mughal Empire for trading posts Fort William, c.1700; factory in Bengal, c.1790 until the mid-19C, British interests in India managed by the EIC – virtually a govt. [law, diplomacy, military, commerce] main trading settlements in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras – shipped goods from Asia worth ₤1 million per year

Prior to the 18C the English government had neither the ways nor the means to administer an Empire itself: → into the 17C; when it needed to move troops, private commercial vessels were re-fitted for that purpose → the earliest ‘imperial’ ventures consisted of a collusion between: the state (that granted monopolies of trade) individuals (privateers) new limited joint stock companies like the East India Company (1707) → investors got rich, the state raised money, and grabbed land

A ‘polite and commercial people’ Empire impacts everyone: £s in circulation, and culturally (what it means to be British) increases in production:commodities manufacturing but the real money was in? Great Linford, near Milton Keyes and every Briton was involved

Impact of Empire? Commercial growth:state capital for infrastructure power and authority individual capital social shifts – consumer growth science and industry Geopolitical knots:Europe North America and the Caribbean Mediterranean S. and S.E. Asia Intellectual challenges:state and society; economics human nature race and place

Worlds entangled: Africa and Atlantic Worlds “…They resemble us, but in appearance are the colour of pumpkin-porridge….They are rude of manners and without any graces or refinement.” organized, dynamic societies dynamic prior to arrival of Europeans respond to Europeans in a variety of ways accommodation adoption/adaptation resistance societies, cultures, economies stressed

The Triangular Trade The scale:12 men in s slaves py ,000 py 17C – py 18C – py 1. European manufactured goods (esp. firearms) sent to Africa 2. African slaves purchased and sent to Americas 3. Cash crops purchased in Americas and returned to Europe

Foundation and Nature of the Slave Trade all societies have had slaves: practice of slaving in the continent dates to antiquity war captives criminals people expelled from clans indebted; kidnappings qualitatively distinct from Asian, European slavery not the same concept of private property therefore wealth defined by human labor potential, not land slaves often assimilated into owner’s clan non-permanent status: slave in society, not slave society

Horrific Social/Political Impact On African regions: variable resist Rwanda, Bugunda, Masai, Asante, benefitDahomey, Oyo peoples increased violence in existing regional conflicts total pop. grew due to crops like manioc or casava but depleted regional populations distorted sex ratios result increased polygamy ♀ acting in traditionally ♂ roles ethnocentrism in modern contact

The Middle Passage (Africa-Americas) Historical amnesia and memory: ‘new’ histories – 1960s i.e. teaching industrial revolution pop. histories Amistad (Spielberg; 1997) The middle passage mortality high – between 25% and 30% died numbers game However, the majority of British people not horrified Good evidence suggests they knew from richest to poorest (cost of sugar)

Britons understanding their involvement in slaving Olaudah Equiano b. Essaka, Nigeria, 1745 captured at 11; shipped to Barbados and then Virginia owned by:tobacco plantation owner a lieutenant in the English navy (fought against French) shipwright saved £40 to buy his own freedom (1768) 1787 involved in government provisioning of Sierra Leone published ‘Narrative of a Life’ m. in Britain with two daughters d. 1797he says this is wrong and we can change it

Sierra Leone efforts of an entire network of British philanthropists and missionaries – one example with local resonance: Granville Sharpe (1787) – society to find place in Africa to settle freed slaves Why? large, volatile communities in e.g. Liverpool, Nova Scotia and, to introduce ‘civilized’, Christian blacks as models for the rest of Africa by 1800 fractious – no clear leadership nor stability – British role i.e. SPCK in Canada, not for black settlers British administered but, center for trade and evangelical activity

‘the British Empire is arrived at that height of Power and Glory, to which none of the States and Monarchies upon the Earth could ever lay the like claim’ - Rev. John Entick, 1774 Tension:defining ‘greatness’ liberal philosophic developments – desire for power encountering and making sense of ‘other’