Women’s Service and the Military: Inevitable Progress or Gendered Organization? Joseph R Bongiovi, UNC-Chapel Hill, Department of Sociology DEOMI Conference, Patrick AFB, Florida December 7, 2011

Importance of Women & the Military Women make up more than half of the population, workforce and degree earners; The military is high profile, biggest employer and largest federal discretionary expense; We have the highest female participation, with 255,000+ deployed to Iraq & Afghanistan 2

Theoretical Context Gender equality inevitably results from rational organizations and modern institutions (Jackson, 1998); or “Gendered organizations” (Acker, 1990; Britton, 2000; Lorber, 1994; MacKinnon, 1989); Gender framing and modernizing forces interact, resisting and supporting progress towards gender equality (Ridgeway, 2011) 3

Case Selection and Research Questions The military is traditionally male gendered (Goldstein, 2001; Herbert, 1998; Higate, 2003; McSally, 2011; Silva, 2008); however There has been significant progress for women since the 1970’s; Do women have similar opportunity as men in today’s military? What mechanisms enable or inhibit progress towards equality? 4

Data and Methods Publically available DoD and Census data; Analysis of male/ female participation rates and rank representation; Publically accessible DoD surveys; Data on harassment and assaults; Service member testimonials 5

Female Officer and Total Participation

Results: Officer Representation Female officer representation increased every year, from 3.2% in 1955 to 15.9% in 2011; and Among company grade officers it increased from 14.1% in 1994 to 17.5% in 2011; and Female field grade officers from 11% to 13.3%; And flag officers from 1.2% to 7.3%. 7

Results: NCO Representation SR NCO representation increased from 7.9% in 1994 to 11% in 2011; JR NCO increased from 11% in 1994 to 14.7% in 2006, decreasing to 14.1% in 2011; Enlisted increased from 14.1% in 1994 to 17.3% in 2001, decreasing to 15% in 2011; 8

Participation and Representation: Evidence for Inevitable Equality? Participation increased until 2001, then flattened out overall; Representation increased annually for nearly all rank categories; but Participation and representation continue to be low overall. 9

RANK CATEGORY RATIOS F Flag/ Field Officers M Flag/ Field Officers F/ M Flag/ Field Officers F Field/ Company Officers M Field/ Company Officers F/M Field/ Company Officers F SR NCO/ JR NCO M SR NCO/ JR NCO F/M SR NCO/ JR NCO F JR NCO/ JR Enlisted M JR NCO/ JR Enlisted F/ M JR NCO/ JR Enlisted

Results: Enlisted Rank Category Ratios JR NCO to JR enlisted ratio is.616 for women,.658 for men and.936 between them; SR NCO to JR NCO is.254 for women,.324 for men and.782 between them 11

Results: Officer Rank Category Ratios Field grade to company grade officer ratio is.442 for women,.584 for men and.756 between them; Flag officer to field grade ratio is.006 for women,.011 for men and.552 between them. 12

Male and Female Representation by Rank,

Rank Category Ratios: Evidence for “Gendered Organization”? Women continue to be a small percentage of the overall military, with diminished representation at each higher rank category; They are three quarters as likely to become SR NCOs or field grade officers, and half as likely to become flag officers; evidence that In spite of progress, the military continues to be a male “gendered organization” 14

Hypothesizing Mechanisms Enabling and Inhibiting Gender Equality I next hypothesize mechanisms enabling and inhibiting progress towards gender equality; Using evidence from Department of Defense surveys, environmental data and published and unpublished service member testimonials 15

Mechanisms for Gender Equality Progress for women in general society, particularly work, education and sports; Regulatory changes, including Title VII and IX; Requirements of the all volunteer force; Positive example of the first Gulf War; Increased personnel needs from conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan; End “don’t ask, don’t tell” 16

Mechanisms Against Gender Equality Resilience of “hegemonic masculinity”; Sexual harassment and assault; Exclusion from combat arms; Family support issues 17

Conclusions and Future Research Evidence supports accommodation/ progress but persistence of a “gendered organization”; I have hypothesized mechanisms for both; These inform possible future actions; but Occupation, promotion and survey detail, by gender, is needed to test these hypotheses! 18

Questions?

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