AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT I Introductory Psychology: Research Methodology “Not everything that counts can be counted and not everything that can be counted counts…”

Psychological Research: The Basics PART ONE First & foremost, you have to be curious & ask questions!

PART TWO Psychological Research: Looking for Laws The SCIENTIFIC Approach to Behavior

Research: Looking for Laws Goals of the Scientific Enterprise  Measurement and description  Understanding and prediction  Application and control Remember, the scientific approach assumes that events are governed by some lawful order…PSYCHOLOGY is SCIENCE!

Research: Looking for Laws Step ONE  Formulate a testable hypothesis  Translate a theory/ intuitive idea into a hypothesis  Allows us to accept, reject or revise a theory  Will state both independent & dependent variables, as well as operational definitions KNOW THESE TERMS!!

Research: Looking for Laws Step TWO  Select a research method & design the study  The hypothesis MUST be put to an empirical test  The hypothesis will guide the chosen method of research (i.e. experiment, case study, survey, naturalistic observation)  A detailed plan for executing the study should be developed o Number of participants, random sampling, random assignment, etc.

Research: Looking for Laws Step THREE  Collect the data  The hypothesis will guide the chosen technique for data collection  (i.e. direct observation, questionnaire, interview, physiological recordings, psychological test, etc.)

Research: Looking for Laws Step FOUR  Analyze the data & draw conclusions  In order to determine whether the hypothesis has been supported, all research findings MUST be converted into raw data  Statistical analysis Step FIVE  Report the findings  Publication  Peer Review  Replication (WHY?)

Research: Looking for Links How does one analyze the results of a descriptive study?  Correlation  A measure of the relationship between two or more variables (when researchers are NOT ABLE to manipulate the variables) Used to make PREDICTIONS; CANNOT be used to determine cause & effect relationships Used to analyze descriptive research methods (naturalistic observations, case studies, surveys, etc.)

Illusory Correlations Perceiving Order in Random Events When we believe there is a relationship, we tend to recall and notice instances that confirm our belief Examples :  Sugar = hyperactive children  Cold/Wet = Cold (sniffles)  Weather change = arthritis pain Assuming certain random outcomes are more likely than other random outcomes Examples:  Flipping coins  Hand of cards  Lottery numbers Problems with Correlations

Research: Looking for Links Remember, correlation IS NOT causation  “Children with big feet reason better than children with small feet”  (older children typically have bigger feet than younger children; thus it is likely that they will have superior reasoning skills)  Study done in Korea: “the most predictive factor in the use of birth control is the number of appliances in the home”  (those who have numerous appliances probably have a higher socioeconomic status, and therefore, a higher degree of education – hence the use of birth control)

Research: Looking for Links Correlation Coefficient (r)  A number that indicates the strength and direction of a correlational relationship  Example  Researchers might be curious as to whether or not cigarette smoking is connected to life expectancy  In this case, they are looking for the relationship between the # of cigarettes smoked per day & the age of the person at death  In other words, knowing the value of one variable may allow researchers to predict the value of the other variable

Research: Looking for Links Perfect Positive Correlation (r) = (+1.00) Perfect Negative Correlation (r) = (-1.00) No correlation (r) = (0) The slope of points (x and y) indicates the direction. The amount of scatter shows the strength of relationship. CORRELATIONAL SCATTERPLOTS

Research: Looking for Links

Positive or negative correlation?  The more TV is on in the homes of young children, the less time they spend reading  The more sexual content teens see on TV, the more likely they are to have sex  The longer children are breast-fed, the greater their academic achievement  Increased marijuana use leads to greater relationship troubles

Research: Looking for Links When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Correlation coefficient Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) r =0.37+

PART THREE Psychological Research: Looking for Causes Experimental Research

Research: Looking for Causes Experiment  A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result  This is the ONLY research method that allows researchers to determine CAUSE & EFFECT relationships Clark Kent, a world renowned psychologist, wants to study the effect of violent cartoons in regards to the aggressive behaviors of children…

Research: Looking for Causes Experimental Variables  Independent Variable  The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter; thought to cause a behavior  Dependent Variable  The variable that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in an experiment The independent variable (IV) is free to be manipulated The dependent variable (DV) is thought to depend on the independent variable In other words, how does X affect Y?

Research: Looking for Causes Operational Definition(s)  Describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable

Clark Kent, a world renowned psychologist, wants to study the effect of violent cartoons in regards to the aggressive behaviors of children… Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (IV) Operational Definition(s) Clark Kent, a world renowned psychologist, wants to study the effect of violent (?) cartoons in regards to the aggressive (?) behaviors of children…

Research: Looking for Causes Participant Groups  Experimental Group  The group that is exposed to the independent variable; receives the experimental manipulation  Control Group  The group that receives either (1) no treatment or (2) the placebo treatment  This group is used to control for the possibility that other factors (extraneous/confounding variables) might be causing the effect that is being examined

Clark Kent, a world renowned psychologist, wants to study the effect of violent cartoons in regards to the aggressive behaviors of children… Experimental Group Clark Kent, a world renowned psychologist, wants to study the effect of violent cartoons in regards to the aggressive behaviors of children… Control Group Clark Kent, a world renowned psychologist, wants to study the effect of violent cartoons in regards to the aggressive behaviors of children… Possible Extraneous/Confounding Variables?

Research: Looking for Causes Experimental Safeguards  Random Assignment  The random assignment of subjects to either the experimental group or the control group, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group  Single-Blind Study  Subjects are UNAWARE of which group they are in  Protects against the placebo effect  Double-Blind Study  Both the subjects and the researchers are UNAWARE of group placement  Protects against the placebo and experimenter effect

Research: Looking for Causes The ADVANTAGES of Experimental Research The DISADVANTAGES of Experimental Research +Investigators can control variables in an effort to eliminate alternate explanations +Permits conclusions about cause and effect relationships +Can determine CAUSATION −Are often artificial −Cannot be used to explore all research questions −Certain variables cannot be manipulated

Research: In Review… Experiment, naturalistic observation, case study or survey?  Are people’s attitudes about nuclear disarmament related to their social class?  Do people who suffer from anxiety disorders share similar early childhood experiences?  Do troops of baboons display territoriality – that is, do they mark an area as their own & defend it?  Can the presence of food-related cues (desserts in advertisements, for example), cause an increase in the amount of food people eat?

PART FIVE Psychological Research: Ethics

Research: Approving an Experiment ALL ethical guidelines are established by the American Psychology Association (APA)  Before any experiment is conducted, it must be reviewed and approved by the ethics board

Research: Basic Ethical Principles 1. A participant’s participation in a research study should be voluntary and based on informed consent  Should never be coerced  Should be permitted to withdraw from a study if they so desire

Research: Basic Ethical Principles 2. Participants SHOULD NOT be exposed to harmful or dangerous research procedures  Includes protection against both physical and psychological harm During World War II, Nazis attempted to change eye color by injecting dye directly into the eyeball; caused blindness

Research: Basic Ethical Principles 3. Deception is acceptable as long as the participants are informed of the deception as soon as it is practical to do so (without compromising the goals of the study)  A “debriefing” is required  Deception must not be about matters that involve risks

Research: Basic Ethical Principles 4. Subjects’ right to privacy should NEVER be violated  All information acquired during study must be treated as highly confidential  Should never be made available to others without the consent of the participant

Research: Basic Ethical Principles 5. Harm to animals is permissible if, and only if, it is for the greater human good; however, any use of harm must be thoroughly justified  Laboratory animals are entitled to decent living conditions