Chapter 23 The Age of Nation-States Chapter 23 The Age of Nation-States Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Background to the Crimean War Ottoman Empire granted Catholic France rather than Orthodox Russia oversight of the Christian shrines in the Holy Land Russia wanted to extend its control over the Ottoman provinces of Moldavia & Walachia

The Crimean War War erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire when Russia attempts to extend its influence into Ottoman territory France and Britain join the Ottomans; to Russia’s surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians remain neutral Poorly equipped and commanded troops lead to massive suffering on both sides Helped by French and British forces, the Ottomans defeat the Russians Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Role of Napoleon III Napoleon III engaged in the Crimean War because he thought that an activist foreign policy would win domestic support for his regime. He also had little respect for the Congress of Vienna and favored redrawing the map of Europe along lines of nationality. Napoleon III’s involvement of France in this war and in other wars eventually leads to his overthrow.

Results of War Russia gives up land around Danube River and Black Sea Russia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire Image of invincible Russia crushed Concert of Europe dissolved Austria tries to assert a large role in Germany Prussia resents Austria and wants leading role in Germany Adventurism in foreign policy takes over Europe where countries believe that only the limits of its military power and its diplomatic influence should constrain its international ambitions

The Ottomans’ Reforms Make Empire More “European” Tanzimat – reorganization of the empire Liberalized economy Ended tax farming Freedom of religion Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-Muslims Equal chances in the military, state employment, and admission to state schools Abolished torture Gave property rights In some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms hard to enforce Reforms an attempt to modernize and secularize the empire Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Italian Unification

Italy Metternich: Italy a “mere geographic expression” Difficulties to unification– Risorgimento Marked differences: North wealthy, sophisticated, industrialized, largely dominated by Habsburgs Central/Rome remains a papal secular holding South poor, backward, dominated by local strong families Lacks tradition of centralized rule Monarchy? Republic? Papal rule? Nonetheless -- Liberal elites dream of unification Carbonari- secret society established after Congress of Vienna Newspapers and flyers call for one Italy Common hatred for Austria

Piedmont-Sardinia By far most prosperous region of Italy Retains liberal constitution of 1848 Savoy dynasty only Italian rulers on peninsula King Victor Immanuel II (r ) Loved hunting, horses, and 16 year-old mistress Count Camillo di Cavour Young liberal who traveled to France and Britain Named minister for commerce and finance Premier in 1852 Aim to unite N Italy under Savoy Reforms currency, finances, promotes economic and industrial development

Cavour’s Foreign Policy Austria main obstacle Piedmont not strong enough Cavour seeks French alliance Sends troops to support France and UK in Crimea Cavour meets with Napoleon III (Jul 1858) France promises support v. Austria France to receive Savoy and Nice Piedmont to receive Lombardy and Venetia Two trouncing French/Piedmont victories at Magenta and Solferino (June 1859) Napoleon III betrays, asks for separate peace with Austria (July 1859) - Austria cedes Lombardy to Piedmont; retains Venetia August-Sept 1859: Revolutionary parliaments in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna ask to be annexed Napoleon recognizes in return for Savoy and Nice

Italian Unification: The South Revolution in Sicily against reactionary Bourbon Francis II (Apr 1860) Garibaldi sails with the “Red Shirts” (1,000 volunteers) Population joins Take Palermo in August, Naples in September Fearing Red Shirts’ seizure of Rome, Cavour sends Piedmont troops Take papal states- France is the protector of Rome Garibaldi hands the two Sicilies to Victor Emmanuel II Kingdom of Italy proclaimed on 17 March 1861 Liberal constitution Capitals at Turin, then Florence Italy allies with Prussia in 1866, receives Venetia French withdraw troops from Rome in 1870 Italians take, make capital

German Unification 1 st movements for unification done by a conservative army, the monarchy (Frederick William IV), and the prime minister of Prussia Frederick wanted to end the stalemate between him and the liberal Parliament Initially unsuccessful in unifying Germany King William I (Wilhelm I) appointed Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister of Prussia Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Otto von Bismarck Would be more responsible for reshaping European history than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860s–1890s) Because of the idea of German unification, helped William outflank the Prussian liberals of the Parliament Led Prussia into three wars, then spent nineteen years fighting for peace Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Bismarck’s Wars and Government The Danish War (1864) – Prussia together with Austria easily defeats Denmark to take over northern states of Schleswig (Prussia) and Holstein (Austria) Diplomacy Gained Russian sympathy by supporting the suppression of Poland Persuaded Napoleon III to stay neutral in Austrian- Prussian conflicts Promised Italy, Venetia if they supported Prussia Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Bismarck’s Wars and Government The Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Austria defeated – Italy gets Venetia and Austrian Hapsburgs excluded from German affairs The North German Confederation – Prussia now a federation with two houses Bundesrat – federal council composed of members appointed by governments of the states Reichtag – chosen by universal male suffrage; had very little power Nationalism overtakes the concerns of liberalism and Germany, in effect, becomes a military monarchy

Bismarck’s Wars and Government The Franco-Prussian War – France declares war on Prussia when Bismarck makes it appear that William I of Prussia had insulted France Prussia crushes France and captures Napoleon III William becomes emperor of united Germany German unification a blow to liberalism, France, and the Hapsburg empire

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France From second Republic to second empire to third republic

Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (r ) consolidates power Army Middle classes Peasants Catholic Church Sends troops to protect Pope Pius IX (1849), increases Catholic influence on education Proclaims himself president for life (Dec 1851) Creates a dictatorship with democratic facade Napoleon III (r ) Plebiscite calls for reestablishment of Empire Declared Emperor on 2 Dec 1852 Marries Eugenie

Two Sides of Empire Paternalistic Empire Aggressive Empire ( ) Strict censorship, political limitations Economic programs Promote expansion to minimize discontent Establish two investment banks Aid to Workers and Peasants Improve housing, hospitals, elderly homes Private social insurance encouraged Build infrastructure, Public works -Especially rebuilding of Paris Free trade with England floods markets with English goods Inept interventions in Italy in 1859 Loosens censorship, more financial power to Assembly Intervention in Mexico ( ) Archduke Maximilian as Emperor—Executed in 1867 Weakened Napoleon III Makes concessions to Senate and Legislative Assembly, ends press censorship, permit political meetings

End of the Second Empire, the Paris Commune, and Third Republic Napoleon declares war on Prussia Captured at Sedan (1871) Radicals declare Third Republic Paris Commune Monarchist candidates win majority (Feb 1871) Adolphe Thiers orders disillusion of Paris National Guard Radicals elect Paris Commune Thiers crushes commune Army bombards Paris May 1871 Government regains control 20,000 dead Constitutional Laws (1875) Weak government centered on parliament Univ. manhood suffrage elects Chamber of Deputies Appointed Senate Weak executive, PM, president Anticlericalism Republicans push anticlerical campaign against monarchists Free, secular elementary schools Jesuits expelled “God” removed from oaths Boulanger Affair (late 1880s) Possible coup Discredits monarchists

The Dreyfuss Affair (1890s) Captain Alfred Dreyfuss convicted of spying for Germans in 1894 Dreyfuss a Jewish officer Sentenced to Devil’s Island Col. Picquart finds evidence that Maj. Esterhazy was guilty (acquitted) Key documents had been forged Dreyfusards Insist on innocence Support republic and anticlericalism Anti-Dreyfusards Insist on guilt Support monarchists, the army, and the church Often Openly anti-Semetic Zola’s J’Accuse Charges army with forging and suppressing evidence (Zola convicted of libel) New court martial finds Dreyfuss guilty w. “extenuating circumstances” President pardons Dreyfuss, conviction invalidated Stunning defeat for conservatives, the army and, especially, the Church Renews anticlerical campaign Concordat of 1801 abrogated

The Hapsburg Empire The empire in the 1840s–1860s remained dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as compared with the rest of Europe Austria’s defeat by France in 1859 and Prussia in 1866 confirms that a new government is needed Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

The Hapsburg Dual Monarchy Francis Joseph issues February Patent, which sets up a bicameral imperial government or Reichsrat Francis Joseph and the Magyars come up with Compromise or Ausgleich of 1867, setting up a dual monarchy known as Austria-Hungary to replace Hapsburg empire Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Nationalism and Unrest The Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled the Hungary part of Austria-Hungary The Ruthenians, Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs, oppose the Compromise of 1867 Francis Joseph in response makes German and Czech equal languages and enacts universal male suffrage in Austria, but not Hungary, throwing the Reichsrat into chaos Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Nationalism and Unrest Wanting to be linked by a common race and language, Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians, and Serbs all look towards nationalism Consequences of nationalism are two World Wars and unrest today

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Russian Reforms under Alexander II Serfdom abolished Positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue trades Negatives – over a forty-nine year period, serfs have to pay back, including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land Local government reform – local government run by zemstvos, a system of provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Russian Reforms under Alexander II Judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury Military reform – service requirements lowered from twenty-five to fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightly Repression in Poland – Poland basically becomes a Russian province under Russian laws and language

Russian Revolutionaries – people or groups not satisfied by Alexander’s reforms Alexander Herzen – started a movement called populism, based on the communal life of peasants Vera Zasulich – attempted to assassinate the military governor of St. Petersburg The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated Alexander II Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Alexander III Autocratic and repressive Rolled back his father’s reforms Strengthened secret police and censorship of the press Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Great Britain – The Second Reform Act (1867) Surprisingly, the Conservatives in the House of Commons, led by Benjamin Disraeli, allow a large number of working class males to vote The new prime minister elected, however, is a liberal, William Gladstone Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

The Great Ministry of Gladstone Freedom of religion and class Competitive exams replace patronage for civil service Voting by secret ballot The Education Act of 1870 – established that the government, not the church, would run the elementary schools Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

Disraeli as Prime Minister Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government becomes actively involved in providing housing for the working class Protection of trade unions and the allowance of picket lines Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.