Philosophy for Children Challenging students to think Nicola O’Riordan Teaching and Learning Consultant for Inclusion East Riding of Yorkshire Warm-up with introductions using soft ball and shouting out names

Workshop Aims Provide a brief overview of the principles, origins and aims of the P4C approach Explore the benefits of P4C for pupils Give delegates an opportunity to experience a ‘community of enquiry’

The Principles of P4C Education is the outcome of participation in a teacher-guided community of enquiry, among whose goals are the achievement of understanding and good judgement Students are stirred to think about the world when our knowledge of it is revealed to them to be ambiguous, equivocal and mysterious The disciplines in which enquiry occurs are assumed to be neither non-overlapping nor exhaustive; hence their relationships to their subject matters are quite problematic The teacher’s stance is fallibilistic (one that is ready to concede to error) rather than authoritative Students are expected to be thoughtful and reflective, and increasingly reasonable and judicious The focus of the educational process is not on the acquisition of information but on the grasp of relationships within and among the subject matters under investigation (Lipman, 2003, pp18-19) The educational paradigm upon which philosophy for children is based is reflective and critical, and perhaps most importantly, it assumes that education is enquiry (Lipman, 2003). P4C recognises that intelligence is a social achievement and furthermore that the capacity for intelligence is linked to relations of trust (Lipman, 2003, Brown & Lauder, 2001). Any comments about those principles? Does everyone agree with them? Are any of these principles problematic?

The Origins of Philosophy for Children Professor Matthew Lipman Socrates - “I know nothing except the fact of my ignorance” Vygotsky - “What the child can do in cooperation today, he can do alone tomorrow” Dewey - “An education that emphasises community, communication and intelligent enquiry, and a reconstructive attitude can best serve the citizens of an ever-changing world” Lipman’s educational paradigm has its origins in the Socratic Method, social constructivist theory and pragmatic philosophy (SAPERE, 2010, Mercer & Littleton, 2007, Burgh, Field & Freakley, 2006, Fisher 2003, Lipman, 2003, Gregory, 2002, Wells, 1999). According to Plato the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates believed that “the unexamined life is not worth living” (Plato: Apology 38a).The ‘examined life’ on the other hand (which necessitates development of the capacity for critical reflection) enables individuals to interrogate ‘received’ beliefs and values and break free from prejudicial, egocentric and impulsive habits of thought (UNESCO, 2007, Fisher, 2003). In the Socratic view the search for truth is a moral and rational enterprise facilitated through the Socratic Method which is defined as an inductive process of “persistent and thorough questioning” (Burgh, Field & Freakley, 2006, p37) which enables movement from specific examples of whatever is the case (e.g. justice) to tentative generalisations (Lipman, 2003, Fisher, 2003, Burgh, Field & Freakley, 2006). Socrates likened his work to that of a midwife – helping others to give birth to their ideas. Philosophy for children facilitators employ the Socratic Method to encourage pupils to seek clarification, probe reasons and evidence, explore alternative views, test implications and consequences and ask questions about the question (Fisher, 2003, pp154-155). Fundamentally Vygotsky believed that culture was the central driver of human development. He asserted that: Learning is an inherently social activity mediated through the use of cultural tools; meaning is constructed firstly between people (inter-mental) and then inside the individual (intra-psychological) Language is the most important cultural tool for learning; language and other meditational tools are embedded in specific historical and cultural contexts which directly influence the capacity to learn Learning takes place in the gap between actual and potential development (known as the zone of proximal development) and this learning is mediated by more experienced members of the community. The assumptions and practice of philosophy for children place heavy emphasis on the process of collaborative enquiry, shared cognition and the construction of meaning through dialogue with others as a means of internalising and appropriating metacognitive tools for learning and achieving higher cognitive functioning (Burgh, Field & Freakley, 2006, Fisher, 2003). Influenced by Darwin’s theory On the Origin of Species John Dewey believed that human intelligence evolved through active problem-solving and that education should provide opportunities for active problem-solving which engage with the interests and experiences of students. Dewey fervently believed that education should be reconstructed along the lines of scientific enquiry. Based on his observations of human problem-solving Dewey (1933) developed a heuristic or pattern of reflective thinking which the writer would argue is very similar to the basic sequence of a community of philosophical enquiry: A problem situation is experienced The problem is defined A range of solutions are generated to solve the problem The implications of each solution are compared and evaluated An appropriate course of action is selected

Aims of Philosophy for Children Develop cognitive ability and emotional intelligence Help children become more reasonable thinkers and problem solvers Promote dispositions and qualities such as curiosity, creativity and wisdom Develop philosophical conceptualisation Lipman believes that children of all ages should be given the opportunity to participate in communities of philosophical enquiry with the aim of: Improving reasoning skills Developing creativity Developing personal and interpersonal skills Developing ethical understanding (Lipman, 1980, pp79-81) The aim is to develop and nurture multi-dimensional thinking but for Lipman the ultimate aim of P4C isis to educate for reasonableness. Lipman defines reasonableness as “rationality tempered by self-criticism, deliberation and judgement” (Lipman, 1998 , p11). P4C is a conceptual activity which is concerned with the development of the BIG ideas which have concerned humanity throughout time.

The Development of Thinking Skills KNOWLEDGE ‘Can recall previously learned material such as facts, basic concepts and answers’ COMPREHENSION ‘Demonstrates understanding of facts and ideas by organising and comparing them’ APPLICATION ‘Solving problems by applying acquired knowledge and skills in a variety of ways’ ANALYSIS ‘Examining and breaking information into parts to understand its structure’ EVALUATION ‘Making judgements about information based on a set of criteria’ SYNTHESIS ‘Using previous and new knowledge to develop arguments’ Resnick (1987) states that higher order thinking is: Non algorithmic (path is not specified in advance) Tends to be complex Often yields multiple solutions Involves advanced judgement and interpretation Involves the application of multiple criteria Often involves uncertainty Involves self-regulation of the thinking process Involves imposing meaning (finding structure in apparent disorder) Is effortful – the mental work required is considerable

Multi-dimensional thinking: The 4 C’s of P4C A Community of Enquiry is deliberately trying to cultivate ways of thinking which enable genuine and constructive communication between people. Dialogue is intended to challenge preconceived views and ideas and draw out a variety of perspectives. These ways of thinking include caring, creative, critical and collaborative thinking.

Exploring the 4 C’s of P4C Active listening Asking questions to clarify, extend or challenge own or others thinking Generating alternative viewpoints Making comparisons Sharing experiences to support the views of others Changing ideas after listening to others Connecting ideas together Checking personal understanding Making distinctions Asking for evidence Speculating Building on each other’s ideas Giving reasons for viewpoint Move into groups of 4. Using the paper provided decide which of the listed behaviours are examples of caring, critical, creative and collaborative thinking. Watch ‘Your Granny or Your Goldfish?’ – what examples of critical, creative, collaborative or caring thinking can you observe?

What are the benefits of P4C? Week by week consolidation & extension of vocabulary Over learning of vocabulary for SEN & extension for G&T Peer modelling & support More dominant children learn listening skills Higher order thinking skills are practised in a safe environment Provides language for effective communication Develops critical thinking Teaches the correct terminology for debate Speaking, thinking and listening skills are transferred to other lessons (Observations from Marshlands Primary School Feb 2009) Develops all the skills and dispositions listed in the previous slide – deepens conceptual understanding, ability to ask questions (this is more difficult to do than we often give credit for). Also lots of research to show the positive impact of P4C on pupil’s measured cognitive ability. A whole population of children gained on average 6 standard points on a measure of cognitive abilities after 16 months of weekly enquiry (1 hour per week). • Pupils and teachers perceived significant gains in communication, confidence, concentration, participation and social behaviour following 6 months of enquiry. • Pupils doubled their occurrence of supporting their views with reasons over a 6-month period. • Teachers doubled their use of open-ended questions over a 6-month period. • When pupils left primary school they did not have any further enquiry opportunities yet their improved cognitive abilities were still sustained two years into secondary school. • Pupils increased their level of participation in classroom discussion by half as much again following 6 months of weekly enquiry. (Sutcliffe in UNESCO, 2007a, pp. 53–54)

What are the benefits of P4C? A chance to hear the views of everyone in their class and recognise the range of experience and interests that others bring to the group Opportunities to develop empathic thinking, so that students feel as well as think Opportunities to sustain their thinking and think more deeply, making new connections with previous ideas, concepts and knowledge A time to practise skills of turn-taking, active listening, waiting, working with people who are not necessarily close friends, using different volumes of voice, daring to speak in front of the class An arena where students can try out their ideas and dare to be intelligent A lesson where students who do not yet have fluent literacy skills can be successful (Observations from Goole High School Feb 2009) Develops all the skills and dispositions listed in the previous slide – deepens conceptual understanding, ability to ask questions (this is more difficult to do than we often give credit for). Also lots of research to show the positive impact of P4C on pupil’s measured cognitive ability. A whole population of children gained on average 6 standard points on a measure of cognitive abilities after 16 months of weekly enquiry (1 hour per week). • Pupils and teachers perceived significant gains in communication, confidence, concentration, participation and social behaviour following 6 months of enquiry. • Pupils doubled their occurrence of supporting their views with reasons over a 6-month period. • Teachers doubled their use of open-ended questions over a 6-month period. • When pupils left primary school they did not have any further enquiry opportunities yet their improved cognitive abilities were still sustained two years into secondary school. • Pupils increased their level of participation in classroom discussion by half as much again following 6 months of weekly enquiry. (Sutcliffe in UNESCO, 2007a, pp. 53–54)

The structure of an Enquiry Preparation Presentation of stimulus Thinking time Question making Questions - airing Question choosing First thoughts Building Last thoughts Review Preparation – sometimes to still minds, e.g. by meditation, sometimes to stir, e.g. by games. Any activity which engages and focuses pupils can be used. Can also link to stimulus for enquiry Presentation – of a story, picture, or other rich stimulus for enquiry – must contain a ‘big idea’/concept Thinking time – private reflection upon the stimulus and sharing of private reflections, in twos or threes Question making – generation of questions that might be ‘good for discussion’, individually or in small groups Airing – publication of questions, and clarification of the interest/thinking behind them. Ambiguities or vaguenesses are cleared up and links often suggested and explored Question choosing – of which question to focus on, by voting (e.g. one vote, multi-vote, blind voting to minimise peer group influences) ‘First thoughts’ – question generator explains how the question was arrived at and their thoughts about it Building – The question is opened up to the rest of the community with a view to building a better understanding of the issues and concepts which the question raises ‘Last thoughts’ – uncontested final reflections on own or others’ thinking Review – What went well? What needs improvement?

Establishing ground rules What rules do you need to establish as a group to ensure that enquiries can run smoothly? Think-pair-share Write protocols down for all of group to see – stick on wall E.g. Signal for speaking Eye contact No put downs Active listening Disagreements are justified Everyone’s opinion is a potential source of truth Pupils should be encouraged to plan for what happens if someone breaks the rules negotiated by the community.

Enquiry 1 Ask good questions to provide a focus for the enquiry Give reasons or evidence to support arguments and judgements Clarify concepts through making connections, distinctions and comparisons

Connections Bi-associations: Choose 2 random pictures Think of a connection Tri-associations: Choose 3 random pictures Look at the grid Choose 2 random objects for your partner to connect Swap over Challenge – pick 3 random objects

The United States is the only country still openly using the death penalty against child criminals, Amnesty International has claimed. Worldwide, 34 child offenders are recorded as having been executed since 1990, 19 in America, said the human rights group. A spokesman for the group said: “The USA promotes itself as a global human rights champion, yet it accounts for 13 of the 19 known executions of child offenders reported since 1998.”

Review How did it feel to be part of a community of enquiry? Are there any issues which need to be addressed to make the enquiry run smoother next time? Did you ask good questions to provide a focus for the enquiry? Did you give reasons or evidence to support arguments and judgements? Did you clarify concepts through making connections, distinctions and comparisons? Ask for examples of supporting arguments and judgements/ clarifying concepts Use notebook to record any personal reflections Parking sheet

Any further questions?

Philosophy for Children Nicola O’Riordan Teaching and Learning Consultant for Inclusion East Riding of Yorkshire