Infants, Children, and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 7.1 What personality changes take place during Erikson’s stages of basic trust versus mistrust and autonomy versus shame and doubt? 7.2 Describe the development of basic emotions over the first year, noting the adaptive function of each. 7.3 Summarize changes during the first two years in understanding others’ emotions, self-conscious emotions, and emotional self-regulation. 7.4 What is temperament, and how is it measured?

Learning Objectives (2 of 3) 7.5 Discuss the roles of heredity and environment in the stability of temperament, including the goodness-of-fit model. 7.6 What are the unique features of ethological theory of attachment? 7.7 Cite the four attachment patterns assessed by the Strange Situation and the Attachment Q-Sort, and discuss factors that affect attachment security. 7.8 Discuss infants’ formation of multiple attachments, and indicate how attachment paves the way for early peer sociability.

Learning Objectives (3 of 3) 7.9 Describe and interpret the relationship between secure attachment in infancy and psychological development in childhood. 7.10 Describe the development of self-awareness in infancy and toddlerhood, along with the emotional and social capacities it supports.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Erikson’s Stage First year Basic trust versus mistrust Toddlerhood Autonomy versus shame and doubt

Emotional Development Emotions are an integral part of children’s dynamic systems of action. energize development. become more varied and complex with age. Facial expressions are the best clues to infants’ emotions. Emotional expressions vary with individual’s developing capacities, goals, context.

First Appearance of Basic Emotions Happiness Smile: from birth Social smile: 6–10 weeks Laughter: 3–4 months Anger General distress: from birth Anger: 4–6 months Sadness Distress to “still face”: 2–7 months Fear First fears: 6–12 months Stranger anxiety: 8–12 months

Understanding Emotions of Others Emotional contagion: Early infancy Recognition of emotion in others’ facial expressions: 4–5 months Social referencing: 8–10 months

Self-Conscious Emotions Guilt Shame Embarrassment Envy Pride Appear in middle of second year. Require adult instruction in when to experience the emotion.

Emotional Self-Regulation Young infants depend on caregivers to soothe them. Self-regulation advances over the first year. In the second year, growth in representation and language leads to new ways of regulating emotions. Caregivers’ contributions to child’s self-regulation style Cultural definitions of socially appropriate behavior

Structure of Temperament Thomas and Chess’s model: Easy children: 40% Difficult children: 10% Slow-to-warm-up children: 15% Unclassified children: 35%

Rothbart’s Model of Temperament Reactivity: Activity level Attention span/persistence Fearful distress Irritable distress Positive affect Self-regulation: Effortful control

Biological Development of Shyness and Sociability Inhibited, or shy, children: React negatively, withdraw from new stimuli Higher heart rate, stress hormones, other stress symptoms Greater EEG activity in right frontal lobe of cerebral cortex Uninhibited, or sociable, children: React positively, approach new stimuli Greater EEG activity in left frontal lobe of cerebral cortex

Stability of Temperament Temperament develops with age: Long-term prediction is best achieved after age 3. Areas of prefrontal cortex involved in impulse suppression develop rapidly at age 2½ to 3, supporting effortful control. Parenting experiences—patient, supportive vs. insensitive or unresponsive child rearing

Temperament: Genetic and Environmental Influences Genetic influences Responsible for about half of individual differences Role of ethnicity, gender Environmental influences Cultural caregiving styles Differential treatment of boys and girls Emphasis on sibling differences Differential susceptibility to rearing experiences Goodness- of-fit model How temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes

Temperament and Child Rearing Effective parenting depends on good parental mental health. marital happiness. favorable economic conditions. Cultural values affect fit between parenting and child temperament. Parents must accept babies’ unique dispositions.

Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) “Attachment in the making” phase (6 weeks to 6–8 months) “Clear-cut” attachment phase (6–8 months to 18 months–2 years): development of separation anxiety Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on)

Internal Working Model of Attachment in 12- to 16-Month-Olds Figure 7.3: Testing toddlers for internal working models of attachment Figure 7.3 (Based on Johnson, Dweck, & Chen, 2007.)

Episodes in the Strange Situation Researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom. Parent sits while baby plays with toys. Stranger enters, is seated, talks to parent. Parent leaves; stranger offers comfort if baby is upset. Parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necessary; stranger leaves. Parent leaves. Stranger enters, offers comfort to baby. Parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necessary, tries to reinterest baby in toys.

Measuring Attachment Security: Responses to the Strange Situation Secure attachment: Baby uses parent as secure base, expresses clear pleasure when parent returns. Avoidant attachment: Baby seems unresponsive to parent, slow to greet parent on reunion. Insecure-resistant attachment: Baby seeks closeness to parent, is distressed or angry when parent returns. Disorganized/disoriented attachment: Reflects greatest insecurity; baby shows confused, contradictory behaviors.

Attachment Q-Sort Method of measuring attachment security in children between ages 1 and 5 years. Relies on home observations of 90 behaviors. Advantage: May better reflect parent–child relationship in everyday life. Disadvantages: Time-consuming; does not differentiate between types of insecurity.

Cross-Cultural Comparison of Infants’ Reactions in the Strange Situation Figure 7.4: A cross-cultural comparison of infants’ reactions in the Strange Situation Figure 7.4 (Based on van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988; van IJzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008.)

Factors That Affect Attachment Security Early availability of consistent caregiver Quality of caregiving: Sensitive caregiving Interactional synchrony Infant characteristics Family circumstances Parents’ internal working models

Child Care and Attachment Security Family circumstances: Powerful impact of parenting quality on children’s adjustment Balance of work and caregiving Child care: Benefits of high-quality child care Association between long hours in inadequate child care and behavior problems

Multiple Attachments Babies develop attachments to a variety of familiar people: Fathers Grandparents Siblings

Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development Fathers’ sensitive caregiving (though less strongly than mothers’) predicts attachment security. Fathers often build attachments through sensitive play, which predicts children’s favorable emotional and social adjustment.

Average Time Working Parents Spend with Children under Age 12 Figure 7.5: Average amount of time per workday. U.S. employed mothers and fathers reported spending with their children (age 12 and younger) in 1977 and 2008 Figure 7.5 (Based on Galinsky, Aumann, & Bond, 2009.)

Grandparent Primary Caregivers Nearly 2.4 million U.S. children live in skipped-generation families: Families with grandparents as primary caregivers continue to increase. Grandparents often assume the parenting role during times of stress. Grandparent caregivers forge significant attachment relationships with grandchildren, despite problems.

Sibling Relationships Preschoolers often resent arrival of a new baby but also show concern and affection. To promote affectionate sibling relationships, parents should spend extra time with the older child. handle sibling misbehavior patiently. discuss the baby’s wants and needs. express positive emotion toward their partner. engage in joint problem solving.

Attachment and Later Development Secure attachment is often (but not always) related to later cognitive, emotional, and social competence. Continuity of caregiving may determine whether attachment security is linked to later development. Long-term effects of early attachment security are conditional—dependent on the quality of future relationships.

Self-Awareness Beginnings: Explicit self-awareness: Infants’ sense of being physically distinct from surroundings Implicit sense of self–world differentiation Explicit self-awareness: Self-recognition: identification of the self as a physically unique being Explicit body self-awareness: realization that one’s own body can serve as an obstacle

Influences on Self-Awareness Gains in self-awareness result from acting on the environment. sensitive caregiving. Cultural variations Autonomous child-rearing goals: expressing one’s own interests and preferences Relational child-rearing goals: compliance and sharing

Self-Awareness and Emotional and Social Development Self-awareness leads to efforts to understand another’s perspective. Older toddlers express first signs of empathy. Toddlers also demonstrate awareness of how to upset others.

Categorizing the Self Categorical self (18–30 months): classifying self and others on basis of age (“baby,” “boy,” “man”). sex (“boy,” “girl”). physical characteristics (“big,” “strong”). goodness and badness (“I good girl”). Toddlers use their limited categorical understanding to organize their own behavior.

Self-Control Effortful control: ability to inhibit impulses and manage negative emotion Compliance (12–18 months): Toddlers show clear awareness of caregivers’ wishes and expectations. Assertiveness and opposition occur alongside eager, willing compliance. Delay of gratification: influenced by temperament and quality of caregiving.

Suggestions for Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control Respond with sensitivity and encouragement. Give advance notice of change in activity. Offer many prompts and reminders. Positively reinforce self-controlled behavior. Encourage selective and sustained attention. Support language development. Increase rules gradually.

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