UNI320Y: Canadian Questions: Issues and Debates Week 3: Non-Citizens and Flexible Citizens Professor Emily Gilbert

Non-Citizens and Flexible Citizens I.Context II.Non-Citizens: Domestic Workers III.Flexible Citizens: Business Migrants

I: Context Rise in global migration 2002: 175 million migrants Europe: 56 million Asia: 50 million Northern America: 41 million 16 million refugees worldwide Reasons for global migration include: Conflict, ethnic cleansing and statelessness Global capitalism, ‘underdevelopment,’ and the export of labour Family reunification Education

II: Non-Citizens: Domestic Workers Domestic workers Turn of the century: British live-in domestics (6 month term) granted landed immigrant status WWII: East European refugees and DP: 1-year indentured contract, but landed immigrant status 1950s: domestics from Caribbean, given right to landed status but: Subject to medical tests Could be returned if unsuitable (Jamaica, Barbados)

1973: Temporary Employment Authorization Program: short-term work permits 1981: Foreign Domestic Movement (FDM) ‘visitor’ status but eligible for landed immigrant status after 2 years of continuous live-in service with designated employer self-sufficiency requirements

1992: Live-In Caregiver Program (LCP) and new requirements: Equivalent to Canadian grade 12 6 months of full time formal training, or experience in related occupation—later changed to 12 months practical experience Compulsory live-in requirement

Concerns that live-in workers are exploited: Precarious status and threat of deportation Overtime Privacy Sexual, physical and emotion abuse No legal employer/employee contract: arbitration No legal protection over wages, EI, Canada Pension Plan Families that have been left behind Role of gatekeepers: policing role, racism

Citizenship: As dynamic rather than static process Hierarchical: race, gender and class biases Reflects unequal relations between ‘First’ and ‘Third’ world countries Reflects method of entry (legal, illegal…) Monitored by gatekeepers

III: Flexible Citizens: Business Migrants Aihwa Ong on flexible citizenship: “refers to the cultural logics of capitalist accumulation, travel, and displacement that induce subjects to respond fluidly and opportunistically to changing political-economic conditions. In their quest to accumulate capital and social prestige in the global arena, subjects emphasize, and are regulated by, practices favouring flexibility, mobility, and repositioning in relation to markets, governments, and cultural regimes. These logics and practices are produced within particular structures of meaning about family, gender, nationality, class mobility, and social power” (Ong, Flexible Citizenship, 1999:6)

Business Immigration Program 1978: Entrepreneur category: business experience and net worth of $300,000, with 1/3 ownership of business and creation of one job 1986: Investor category: business experience, net worth of $800,000, and investment of $400,000 Increase in number of business migrants in 1990s, especially from Asia (and Hong Kong)

Can apply to be Canadian citizens 3 years after permanent residency is granted (half time can be spent overseas) Importance of cultural capital (Bourdieu) to migrants Importance of family (familial loyalty) Education opportunities Language skills Security of Canadian passport

Experiences of astronaut families and satellite kids Participation in schools, community Appreciation of Canadian ‘way of life’ Flexible citizens and multi-national allegiances Impact on sovereignty? Impact on citizenship?