Evolution Charles Darwin Giant tortoise- Galapagos Islands

Evolution: gradual change in a species over time Scientific theory: a well tested concept that explains a wide range of observations Darwin came up with the theory of evolution based on observations & evidence he collected from the Galapagos Islands.

Observations made by Darwin: Observations made by Darwin: 1. Tortoise shell shape 2. Finches (sizes & shapes of their beaks) 3. Iguanas’ claw size-larger so they can grip on slippery rocks to eat seaweed

Animals of the Galapagos Islands Iguana Different finches

Natural Selection. Natural selection: process by which individuals that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive & reproduce successfully Darwin said evolution happened as a result of natural selection.

Overproduction Species produce way more offspring than can survive. There are not enough resources (food, water, space) to support them. Why does this happen? Baby turtles

Variation Any difference between individuals of the same species Ex. Brown labrador retriever & a black labrador retriever How can variation such as color affect the process of natural selection?

Competiton (survival of the fittest) Members of a species compete for: food, water, space, ability to get away from predators Turtle eating a mayfly Alligator eating a fish

Selection Some variations make individuals better adapted to their environment These individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce (pass favorable traits onto their offspring)

Environmental Change A change in the environment can affect an organism’s ability to survive. This change can lead to selection. Monkey flower

Evidence of Evolution: 1. fossils-comparing animals from millions of years ago to the alive today 2. Similarities in early development 3. Similarities in body structure (homologous- structures that are similar because of a common ancestor) 4. Similar DNA Elephant shrew

Selective Breeding (genetic engineering) Breeding plants & animals for a particular trait. Ex. Thoroughbred horses are bred for sped in racing.

Charles Darwin Influenced by Charles Lyell “Principles of Geology”.Influenced by Charles Lyell who published “Principles of Geology”. DarwinThis publication led Darwin to realize that natural forces gradually change Earth’s surface and that the forces of the past are still operating in modern times.

Charles Darwin H.M.S. Beagle (mainly South America and the Galapagos Islands)Darwin set sail on the H.M.S. Beagle ( ) to survey the south seas (mainly South America and the Galapagos Islands) to collect plants and animals. Galapagos Islands,On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed species that lived no where else in the world. These observations led Darwin to write a book.

Charles Darwin Wrote in 1859“On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”Wrote in 1859:“On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” Two main points:Two main points: 1.Species were not created in their present form, but evolved from ancestral species. 2.Proposed a mechanism for evolution: NATURAL SELECTION

Natural Selection Individualsfavorabletraits environmentIndividuals with favorable traits are more likely to leave more offspring better suited for their environment. “Differential Reproduction”Also known as “Differential Reproduction” Example:Example: English peppered moth (Biston betularia) Biston betulariaBiston betularia - light and dark phases

Artificial Selection selective breedingThe selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals by man. Question:Question: What’s the ancestor of the domesticated dog? Answer:WOLFAnswer: WOLF

Evidence of Evolution 1. Biogeography: Geographical distribution of species. 2. Fossil Record: Fossils and the order in which they appear in layers of sedimentary rock (strongest evidence).

Eastern Long Necked Turtle

Evidence of Evolution 3. Taxonomy: Classification of life forms. 4. Homologous structures: Structures that are similar because of common ancestry (comparative anatomy)

Evidence of Evolution 5. Comparative embryology: Study of structures that appear during embryonic development. 6. Molecular biology: DNA and proteins (amino acids)

Population Genetics sciencegenetic changeThe science of genetic change in population. Remember:Remember:Hardy-Weinberg equation.

Population individuals same speciesA localized group of individuals belonging to the same species.

Species populationsindividuals interbreed viableA group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed and produce viable offspring.

Gene Pool collection of genesThe total collection of genes in a population at any one time.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle conceptshuffling of genes cannot changeThe concept that the shuffling of genes that occur during sexual reproduction, by itself, cannot change the overall genetic makeup of a population.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle principle fiveThis principle will be maintained in nature only if all five of the following conditions are met: 1.Very large population 2.Isolation from other populations 3.No net mutations 4.Random mating 5.No natural selection

Hardy-Weinberg Principle Remember:Remember: equilibrium If these conditions are met, the population is at equilibrium. “No Change” or “No Evolution”.This means “No Change” or “No Evolution”.

Macroevolution higher than the species levelThe origin of taxonomic groups higher than the species level.

Microevolution population’s gene poolA change in a population’s gene pool over a secession of generations. Evolutionary changes geological timeEvolutionary changes in species over relatively brief periods of geological time.

Five Mechanisms of Microevolution 1. Genetic drift: Change in the gene pool of a small population due to chance. Two examples:Two examples: a. Bottleneck effect b. Founder effect

a. Bottleneck Effect Genetic drift disasterreduces population sizeGenetic drift (reduction of alleles in a population) resulting from a disaster that drastically reduces population size. Examples:Examples: 1.Earthquakes 2.Volcano’s

b. Founder Effect Genetic driftcolonizationGenetic drift resulting from the colonization of a new location by a small number of individuals. random changeResults in random change of the gene pool. Example:Example: 1.Islands (first Darwin finch)

Five Mechanisms of Microevolution 2. Gene Flow: Tgain or loss of alleles movement The gain or loss of alleles from a population by the movement of individuals or gametes. Immigration or emigrationImmigration or emigration.

Five Mechanisms of Microevolution 3. Mutation: Change in an organism’s DNA that creates a new allele. 4. Non-random mating: The selection of mates other than by chance. 5. Natural selection: Differential reproduction.

Modes of Action Natural selectionthree modesNatural selection has three modes of action: 1.Stabilizing selection 2.Directional selection 3.Diversifying selection Number of Individuals Size of individuals Small Large

1.Stabilizing Selection Actsextremesfavors intermediateActs upon extremes and favors the intermediate. Number of Individuals Size of individuals Small Large

2.Directional Selection Favorsone extremeFavors variants of one extreme. Number of Individuals Size of individuals Small Large

3.Diversifying Selection Favorsopposite extremesFavors variants of opposite extremes. Number of Individuals Size of individuals Small Large

Speciation evolutionThe evolution of new species.

Reproductive Barriers mechanismimpedes fertile and/or viable hybrid offspringAny mechanism that impedes two species from producing fertile and/or viable hybrid offspring. Two barriers:Two barriers: 1.Pre-zygotic barriers 2.Post-zygotic barriers

1.Pre-zygotic Barriers a. Temporal isolation: Breeding occurs at different times for different species. b. Habitat isolation: Species breed in different habitats. c. Behavioral isolation: Little or no sexual attraction between species.

1.Pre-zygotic Barriers d. Mechanical isolation: Structural differences prevent gamete exchange. e. Gametic isolation: Gametes die before uniting with gametes of other species, or gametes fail to unite.

2.Post-zygotic Barriers a. Hybrid inviability: Hybrid zygotes fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity. b. Hybrid sterility: Hybrid fails to produce functional gametes. c. Hybrid breakdown: Offspring of hybrids are weak or infertile.

Allopatric Speciation ancestral separatedgeographical barrier.Induced when the ancestral population becomes separated by a geographical barrier. Example:Example: Grand Canyon and ground squirrels

Adaptive Radiation Emergence of numerous species common ancestorEmergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced to new and diverse environments. Example:Example: Darwin’s Finches

Sympatric Speciation reproductively isolated sub- populationResult of a radical change in the genome that produces a reproductively isolated sub- population within the parent population (rare). Example: Plant evolution - polyploidExample: Plant evolution - polyploid chromosome # A species doubles it’s chromosome # to become tetraploid. reproductive sub-population Parent population

Interpretations of Speciation Two theories:Two theories: 1.Gradualist Model (Neo-Darwinian): Slow changes in species overtime. 2.Punctuated Equilibrium: Evolution occurs in spurts of relatively rapid change.

Convergent Evolution Speciesevolutionary branches very similar environments.Species from different evolutionary branches may come to resemble one another if they live in very similar environments. Example:Example: 1.Ostrich (Africa) and Emu (Australia). 2.Sidewinder (Mojave Desert) and Horned Viper (Middle East Desert)

Coevolution Evolutionary change selective forcesecond firstEvolutionary change, in which one species act as a selective force on a second species, inducing adaptations that in turn act as selective force on the first species. Example:Example: 1.Acacia ants and acacia trees 2.Humming birds and plants with flowers with long tubes

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