Van Roekel IB BIO II 4/14/14

 Used to calculate frequencies of alleles, genotypes, or phenotypes within a population  Useful in determining how fast a population is changing or in predicting the outcomes of matings or crossings.  Based off of Punnett squares and probabilities to model allele and genotype frequencies

 When looked at individually, the frequencies of alleles on chromosomes must add up to 1  p + q = 1  p = frequency of dominant allele  q = frequency of recessive allele  p = 0.5  q = 0.5 T T t t TT Tt tt

 We are interested in diploid organisms that carry two copies of any trait, so…  (p+q) 2 = 1  p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1  p 2 = frequency of homozygous dominant  q 2 = frequency of homozygous recessive  2pq = frequency of heterozygote

 TT = p 2 = ¼  tt = q 2 = ¼  Tt = 2pq = ½  p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1  ¼ + ½ +1/4 = 1 T T t t TT Tt tt

 What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equation and what does each variable represent? What does this equation tell us?  (p+q) 2 = 1, or p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1  p 2 = homozygous dominant frequency  q 2 = homozygous recessive frequency  2pq = heterozygous frequency  p = dominant allele frequency  q = recessive allele frequency  Used to calculate frequencies of alleles, genotypes, or phenotypes within a population  Useful in determining how fast a population is changing or in predicting the outcomes of matings or crossings

 Populations being studies must be a large population, ideally infinite  Random mating between individuals with the particular alleles being examined, aka the trait is autosomal  There must be a constant allele frequency over time  There is no allele specific mortality (sickle cell anemia)  There are no mutations that could introduce new alleles  There is no emigration or immigration which would alter allele frequency

 Consider a disease caused by a recessive allele t. The predicted allele frequency in a population in 10%, what is the frequency of the healthy allele in the population?  Answer: 90%  p + q = 1  1-q = p  =.90

 A study examined 989 members of the previous population, it was found that 11 people had the disease. Calculate the allele frequency of the recessive allele t.  Answer: 10.5%  11/989 =.011 = q 2 = genotype frequency  Square root of.011 = = 10.5% = q

 Calculate the allele frequencies and genotype frequencies of the population in example 1. Calculate the number of carriers in 500 members of the population  Allele Frequencies: q = 0.10 or 10% p= 0.90 or 90%  Genotype Frequencies: q 2 =.01 or 1% 2pq= 0.18 or 18% p 2 = 0.81 or 81%  Carriers = 90 people (500 x 18%)

 Using information from example 3, calculate the number of people in 500 members that do not suffer from the disease.  Answer: 495 people  p 2 + 2pq = 81% + 18% = 99%  99% x 500 = 495

 Use binomial nomenclature to name and classify organisms  1 st word refers to the genus, 2 nd word to the species, i.e. Homo Sapiens.  Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus consolidated and popularized binomial nomenclature  Reasons: ◦ Make sense of biosphere ◦ Identify unknown organisms ◦ Show evolutionary links ◦ Predict characteristics shared by members of a group

 Five Kingdoms ◦ Kingdom Plantae (plants) ◦ Kingdom Animalia (animals) ◦ Kingdom Fungi (fungi and molds) ◦ Kingdom Protoctista (protozoa and algae) ◦ Kingdom Prokaryote (bacteria)

 Within each kingdom, there are several subdivisions, called taxa  Seven-level hierarchy of taxa: ◦ Kingdom ◦ Phylum ◦ Class ◦ Order ◦ Family ◦ Genus ◦ Species  King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup

TaxaHumanGarden Pea KingdomAnimaliaPlantae PhylumChordataAngiospermae ClassMammaliaDicotyledoneae OrderPrimateRosales FamilyHominidaePapilionaceae GenusHomoPisum Speciessapienssativum

 Feeding Habits (carnivore/herbivore)  Habitat (land dwelling/aquatic)  Daily activity (nocturnal/diurnal)  Risk (harmless/venomous)  Anatomy (vertebrates/invertebrates)  System of classification must be clear, consistent, easily implemented and a general consensus to apply it.

 Four of the several types of plant phyla include: ◦ Bryophyta: short in stature such as moss ◦ Filicinophyta: ferns and horsetails ◦ Coniferophyta: coniferous, pine trees cedar, juniper, fir ◦ Angiospermophyta: all plants that make flowers and have seeds surrounded by fruit

 Vegetative Characteristics such as leave types and stems ◦ Bryophytes: non-vascular, lack vascular transport tissue such as xylem or phloem ◦ Filicinophyta: vascular plants, small leaves ◦ Conifers: vascular, all produce woody stems and leaves are needles or scales ◦ Angiosperms: vascular and have flowers and fruit

 Reproductive characteristics ◦ Bryophytes: produce spores (microscopic reproductive structures) transported by rain water ◦ Filicinophytes: produce using spores in a similar manner ◦ Conifer: use wind to help reproduce by pollination, produce seed cones with seed scales ◦ Angiosperms: produce seeds, rely on birds, insects, and mammals to transport pollen. Sexual organ is flower, fruit is enlarged ovary

 Six of many animal phyla include: ◦ Proifera: sponges ◦ Cnidaria: sea jellies (jellyfish), coral polyps, and others ◦ Platyhelminthes: flatworms ◦ Annelida: segmented worms ◦ Mollusca: snails, clams, octopi, etc… ◦ Atrhtropoda: insects, spiders, crustaceans, etc…  All listed phyla are invertebrates

 Porifera: ◦ Simple marina animals that are sessile (stuck) ◦ Feed by pumping water through tissues and filtering out food ◦ No muscle, nerve tissues, or internal organs  Cnidaria: ◦ Very Diverse: Coaral, sea anamones, jellyfish, hydra, Portuguese man-of-war ◦ All have stinging cells called nematocysts ◦ Some sessile, some free swimming, some both ◦ Gastric pouch for digestion

 Platyhelminthes: ◦ Flatworms with one body cavity, gut with one opening for food to enter and waste to leave ◦ No heart, no lungs ◦ Exchange gas by diffusion ◦ Example: Tapeworms  Annelida: ◦ Segmented worms such as earthworms, leeches, and polychaetes ◦ Bodies divided into sections separated by rings ◦ Have gastric tracts, w/ mouth at one end and anus at opposite

 Mollusca: ◦ Aquatic animals, snails, clams, octopi ◦ Shell produced with calcium ◦ Non-segmented bodies  Arthropoda: ◦ Hard exoskeleton made with chitin, segmented bodies, and limbs (walking, swimming, eating) ◦ Insects, spiders, scorpions, crustaceans such as crab and shrimp ◦ Live in most habitats throughout world ◦ Vary in size

 Used to help identify which order, genus, and species an organism is by using observable characteristics  In General: ◦ Look at first section of key which has a pair of sentences ◦ Look at the organism to see if particular characteristics are present ◦ If answer is yes, to go end of line/next section that contain a new pair of statements to examine ◦ If answer is no, go to second statement just below it and follow that one, should it be true ◦ Continue this until the end of the line has a name, not a number and if each question was answered correctly, should be your organism.  Example in book, pg. 149

 1. a. Organism is living go to 4.  1. b. Organism is nonliving go to 2.  2. a. Object is metallic go to 3.  2. b. Object is nonmetallic ROCK.  3. a. Object has wheels BICYCLE.  3. b. Object does not have wheels TIN CAN.  4. a. Organism is microscopic PARAMECIUM.  4. b. Organism is macroscopic go to 5.  5. a. Organism is a plant go to 6.  5. b. Organism is an animal go to 8.  6. a. Plant has a woody stem go to 7.  6. b. Plant has a herbaceous stem DANDELION.  7. a. Tree has needle like leaves PINE TREE.  7. b. Tree has broad leaves OAK TREE.  8. a. Organism lives on land go to 9.  8. b. Organism lives in water CLAM.  9. a. Organism has 4 legs or fewer go to 10.  9. b. Organism has more than 4 legs ANT.  10 a. Organism has fur go to 11.  10 b. Organism has feathers ROBIN.  11 a. Organism has hooves DEER.  11 b. Organism has no hooves MOUSE.

 Vocabulary can be challenging and technical  Make sure using the right key, no key can identify all the species  Making a Dichotomous Key ◦ Start by putting things in groups by identical characteristics ◦ Invent statements that divide things into created groups