Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Chapter 10 The Senses

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 2 Objectives Classify sense organs as special or general and explain the differences between the two groups Discuss how a stimulus is converted into a sensation Discuss the general sense organs and their functions List the major senses

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 3 Objectives Describe the structure of the eye and the functions of its components Name and describe the major visual disorders Discuss the anatomy of the ear and its sensory function in hearing and equilibrium Name and describe the major forms of hearing impairment Discuss the chemical receptors and their functions

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 4 Classification of Sense Organs General sense organs –Often exist as individual cells or receptor units –Widely distributed throughout the body –Different from special sense organs— groupings of receptors within highly complex organs

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 5 Classification of Sense Organs Special sense organs –Large and complex organs –Localized grouping of specialized receptors

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 6 Classification of Sense Organs Classification by presence or absence of covering capsule –Encapsulated –Unencapsulated (“free” or “naked”)

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 7 Classification of Sense Organs Classified by stimuli required to activate receptors –Photoreceptors (light) –Chemoreceptors (chemicals) –Pain receptors (injury) –Thermoreceptors (temperature change) –Mechanoreceptors (movement or deforming of capsule) –Proprioceptors (position of body parts or changes in muscle length or tension)

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 8 Converting a Stimulus into a Sensation All sense organs have common functional characteristics –All are able to detect a particular stimulus –A stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse –A nerve impulse is perceived as a sensation in the CNS

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 9 General Sense Organs Distribution is widespread; single-cell receptors are common Skin receptors –Free nerve endings (several types)—pain, discriminative touch, tickle, and temperature –Tactile (Meissner) corpuscle—fine touch and vibration –Bulbous (Ruffini) corpuscle—touch and pressure –Lamellar (Pacini) corpuscle—pressure and vibration –Bulboid (Krause) corpuscle—touch

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 11 General Sense Organs Muscle receptors –Golgi tendon receptor—proprioception –Muscle spindle—proprioception Deep receptors –Stretch (pressure) receptors in hollow organs –Chemical receptors—detect pH, carbon dioxide, other chemicals

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 12 Special Sense Organs The eye –Layers of eyeball Sclera—tough outer coat; “white” of eye; cornea is transparent part of sclera over iris Choroid—pigmented vascular layer prevents scattering of light –Front part of this layer made of ciliary muscle and iris, the colored part of the eye –The pupil is the hole in the center of the iris –Contraction of iris muscle dilates or constricts pupil

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 15 Special Sense Organs The eye –Layers of the eyeball Retina innermost layer of the eye; contains rods (receptors for night vision) and cones (receptors for day vision and color vision) –Conjunctiva—mucous membrane covering the front surface of the sclera and lining the eyelid –Lens—transparent body behind the pupil; focuses light rays on the retina

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 16 Special Sense Organs Retina innermost layer of the eye; contains rods (receptors for night vision) and cones (receptors for day vision and color vision) –Conjunctiva—mucous membrane covering the front surface of the sclera and lining the eyelid –Lens—transparent body behind the pupil; focuses light rays on the retina

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 19 Special Sense Organs The eye –Eye fluids Aqueous humor—in the anterior cavity in front of the lens Vitreous humor—in the posterior cavity behind the lens

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 20 Special Sense Organs The eye –Visual pathway Innermost layer of retina contains rods and cones Impulse travels from the rods and cones through the bipolar and ganglionic layers of retina Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a blind spot Visual interpretation occurs in the visual cortex of the cerebrum

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 23 Special Sense Organs Visual disorders –Refraction disorders Myopia (nearsightedness) is often caused by elongation of the eyeball Hyperopia (farsightedness) is often caused by a shortened eyeball Astigmatism is distortion caused by an irregularity of the cornea or lens

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 25 Special Sense Organs Visual disorders –Conjunctivitis (inflammation of the conjunctiva) can interfere with refraction Trachoma—chronic chlamydial infection Acute bacterial conjunctivitis—highly contagious infection that produces a discharge of mucous pus Conjunctivitis can be caused by allergies –Strabismus—improper alignment of eyes Eyes can converge (cross) or diverge If not corrected, can cause blindness

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 28 Special Sense Organs Visual disorders –Disorders of the retina Retinal detachment can be a complication of aging, eye tumors, or head trauma Diabetic retinopathy—damage to retina from hemorrhages and growth of abnormal vessels associated with diabetes mellitus Glaucoma—intraocular pressure that decreases blood flow in retina causing retinal degeneration Nyctalopia (night blindness) or the inability to see in dim light is caused by retinal degeneration or lack of vitamin A

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 29 Special Sense Organs Visual disorders –Disorders of the retina Macular degeneration—progressive degeneration of central part of retina; leading cause of permanent blindness in elderly Red-green color blindness is an X-linked genetic condition involving the inability to perceive certain colors; it is caused by an abnormality in the cones’ photopigments

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 30 Special Sense Organs Visual disorders –Disorders of the visual pathway Degeneration of the optic nerve resulting from diabetes, glaucoma, and other causes can impair vision Scotoma is the loss of only the central visual field when only certain nerve pathways are damaged Cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) can damage visual processing centers; example is acquired cortical color blindness

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 32 Special Sense Organs The ear –Functions as the sense organ of hearing and of equilibrium and balance –Receptors for hearing and equilibrium are mechanoreceptors –Physical forces that create sound vibrations and fluid movement initiate nervous impulses in the ear

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 33 Special Sense Organs The ear –Divisions of the ear External ear –Auricle (pinna)—appendage on side of head –External acoustic canal »Curving tube 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length »Contains ceruminous glands »Ends at the tympanic membrane

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 36 Special Sense Organs The ear –Divisions of the ear Middle ear –Epithelium-lined cavity that houses the ear ossicles—malleus, incus, and stapes –Ends in the oval window –The auditory (eustachian) tube connects the middle ear to the throat –Inflammation called otitis media

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 38 Special Sense Organs The ear –Divisions of the ear Inner ear –Bony labyrinth filled with perilymph –Subdivided into the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea –Membranous labyrinth filled with endolymph –The receptors for balance in the semicircular canals are called cristae ampullaris –Sensory hair cells on the organ of Corti (spiral organ) respond when bent by the movement of surrounding endolymph set in motion by sound waves

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 41 Special Sense Organs Hearing disorders –Conduction impairments Can be caused by blockage of the external or middle ear (e.g., cerumen and tumors) Otosclerosis—inherited bone disorder involving irregularity of the stapes; it first appears as tinnitus (ringing) then progresses to hearing loss Otitis—ear inflammation caused by infection; can produce swelling and fluids that block sound conduction

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 42 Special Sense Organs Hearing disorders –Nerve impairment Presbycusis—progressive nerve deafness associated with aging Progressive nerve deafness can also result from chronic exposure to loud noise Ménière’s disease—chronic inner ear disorder characterized by tinnitus, nerve deafness, and vertigo

Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 43 Special Sense Organs The taste receptors –Receptors are chemoreceptors called taste buds –Cranial nerves VII and IX carry gustatory impulses –Only four kinds of taste sensations—sweet, sour, bitter, salty –Gustatory and olfactory senses work together

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Mosby items and derived items © 2010, 2006, 2002, 1997, 1992 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 45 Special Sense Organs The smell receptors –Receptors for fibers of olfactory or cranial nerve I lie in olfactory mucosa of nasal cavity –Olfactory receptors are extremely sensitive but easily fatigued –Odor-causing chemicals initiate a nervous signal that is interpreted as a specific odor by the brain

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