PRAGMATICS A: I have a fourteen year old son B: Well that's all right A: I also have a dog B: Oh I'm sorry There are other aspects of meaning which are not derived solely from the meanings of the words used in phrases and sentences. In making sense of the quote above, it may help to know that A is trying to rent an apartment from B. When we read or hear pieces of language, we normally try to understand not only what the words mean, but what the writer or speaker of those words intended to convey. The study of 'intended speaker meaning' is called pragmatics.

PRAGMATICS In other words, pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning. It deals with how people use language in context. Muhammed believes he is a genius. To whom does the pronoun “he” refer?

PRAGMATICS We so far have emphasized the influence of context. There are, of course, different kinds of context to be considered. One kind is best described as linguistic context, also known as co-text. The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. This surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think the word means. The word bank is a homonym, a form with more than one meaning. How do we usually know which meaning is intended in a particular sentence? We usually do so on the basis of linguistic context. If the word bank is used in a sentence together with words like steep or overgrown, we have no problem deciding which type of “bank” is meant. In a similar way, when we hear someone say that she has to get to the bank to cash a check, we know from the linguistic context which type of “bank” ' is intended.

PRAGMATICS More generally, we know what words mean on the basis of another type of context, best described as physical context. If you see the word BANK on the wall of a building in a city, the 'physical' location will influence your interpretation. Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context, particularly the time and place, in which we encounter linguistic expressions

PRAGMATICS There are some words that cannot be interpreted at all unless the physical context, especially the physical context of the speaker, is known. These are words like here, there, this, that, now, then, yesterday, as well as most pronouns, such as I, you, him, her, them. Some sentences of English are virtually impossible to understand if we don't know who is speaking, about whom, where and when. For example : You'll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren't here now. Out of context, this sentence is extremely vague. It contains a large number of expressions (you, that, tomorrow, they, here, now) which depend for their interpretation on the immediate physical context in which they were uttered. Such expressions are very obvious examples of bits of language which we can only understand in terms of speaker's intended meaning. These are known as deictic expressions.

PRAGMATICS There are three types of Deictic Expressions : Any expression used to point to a person (me, you, him, them) is an example of person deixis. Words used to point to a location (here, there, yonder) are examples of place deixis, and those used to point to a time (now, then, tonight, last week) are examples of time deixis.

PRAGMATICS Presupposition: What a speaker assumes is true or known by the hearer or the reader. For example: ‘Your brother is waiting for you.‘  the obvious presupposition is that you have a brother.

PRAGMATICS If you are asked the following question, there are at least two presuppositions involved: When did you stop smoking cigars? In asking this question, the speaker presupposes that you used to smoke cigars? and that you no longer do so. Questions like this, with built-in presuppositions, are very useful devices for interrogators or trial lawyers. If the defendant is asked by the prosecutor Okay, Mr. Smith, how fast were you going when you ran the red light?, there is a presupposition that Mr. Smith did, in fact, run the red light. If he simply answers the How fast part of the question, by giving a speed, he is behaving as if the presupposition is correct

PRAGMATICS Speech Acts Austin (1962), How to do things with words. Actions such as requesting, informing, commanding, questioning We use linguistic forms with the functions (speech acts). It is the study of how we do things with sentences.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Speech Acts Speech acts can be classified into two categories: Direct & Indirect

Keeping on with Pragmatics Speech Acts Direct Speech Acts “Can you hear that?” is an example of a Direct Speech Act in which we use the Interrogative Form to achieve the goal of asking a question.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Speech Acts Indirect Speech Acts “Can you explain this to me?” is an example of an Indirect Speech Act in which we use the Interrogative Form to achieve the goal of requesting.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Speech Acts Indirect Speech Acts “You left the door open” is another example of an Indirect Speech Act in which we use the Declarative Form to achieve the goal of requesting in an indirect manner.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Politeness What is Politeness? Understanding Politeness requires defining what face means. FACE is The public self-image of a person (emotional and social sense of self one has and expects everyone else to recognize)

Keeping on with Pragmatics Politeness What is Politeness? The means employed to show awareness of another person's face. Example (student to teacher) a. Excuse me, Mr. Buckingham, but can I talk to you for a minute? b. Hey, Bucky, got a minute?

Keeping on with Pragmatics Politeness What is Politeness? Face-related concepts: Face Threatening Act A speaker says something that represents a threat to another individual's expectations regarding self-image.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Politeness What is Politeness? Face-related concepts: Face Saving Act A speaker says something to lessen a possible threat. Situation: Young neighbor is playing loud music late at night. Older couple cannot sleep. A: I'm going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now! B: Perhaps you could just ask him if he's going to stop soon because it's getting a bit late and people need to get to sleep.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Politeness What is Politeness? Face-related concepts: Negative Face The need to be independent, to have freedom of action, not be imposed on by others.

Keeping on with Pragmatics Politeness What is Politeness? Face-related concepts: Positive Face The need to be accepted/liked, to be treated as a member of the same group, to know that wants are shared by others.