Adolescent Psychology Chapter 10: Schools

Chapter Overview Educational Strategies School transitions Social Contexts of Schools Exceptional Adolescents

Learning In Adolescence School is an important context for learning Academic learning & social arena Direct Instruction Approach Teacher-centered; Teacher direction & control Mastery of academic skills High expectations for students Maximum time spent on learning tasks Continues to be used in many schools Constructivist Approaches Interest in school reform Learner-centered Learner as active participant

Constructivist Approaches Cognitive constructivist Piaget’s theory active, cognitive construction of knowledge & understanding. teacher: provide support for students to explore their world & develop understanding Social constructivist Vygotsky’s theory importance of collaboration with others to produce knowledge & understanding. Teacher: create many opportunities for students to learn with the teacher & with peers in co-constructing understanding.

The Debate Constructivists argue that direct instruction Makes adolescence passive learners Does not adequately challenge Does not promote creativity Direct Instruction enthusiasts argue that constructivists Do not give enough attention to content of subject areas Too vague Many educators & educational psychologists believe that a combination of these may be most effective

APA’s Learner-Centered Psychological Principles APA developed 14 learner-centered principles to guide child and adolescent education Divided into 4 categories Cognitive & metacognitive factors Motivational & instructional factors Developmental & social factors Individual difference factors

Schools & Accountability How effective are schools? Who needs to be acountable? State-mandated tests have taken on a more powerful role Learning objective No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Federal legislation; Signed into law in 2002 Schools & school districts accountable for the success or failure of their students Criticisms of NCLB A single score from a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress and competence represents a very narrow aspect of students’ skills (Lewis, 2006). The tests schools are using to assess achievement and progress as part of NCLB don’t measure such important skills as creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, and social skills (Ercikan, 2006)

Criticisms of NCLB A single score from a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress & competence?? (Lewis, 2006) Tests don’t measure creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, & social skills (Ercikan, 2006) Too much class time “teaching to the test” So are these tests & procedures mandated by NCLB the best ones for achieving high standards for education? (Houston, 2005) How could we make schools more accountable? How could we make students/parents more accountable?

Transitions in Schooling Change is stressful Top-dog phenomenon Move toward personal independence & responsibility Good student adjustment & high self esteem Fewer transitions Extra-curricular activity involvement High quality friendships Parental support

Transition: Elementary School to Middle School Emergence of junior high schools in the 1920s & 1930s Justified on the basis of physical, cognitive, & social changes that characterize early adolescence Influenced by early onset of puberty Occurs simultaneously with many other changes: Puberty Formal operational thought Responsibility & independence Impersonal school structure Heterogeneous set of peers Focus on assessment Top-dog phenomenon

Improving Middles Schools Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1998) recommended core social policy for education Developing smaller “communities” – lessen impersonal nature Lowering student-to-counselor ratios (100s:1 10:1) Involving parents & community leaders Develop better curricula Team-teach in flexible blocks, integrating several disciplines Boost students’ health & fitness – access to public health care Successful middle schools provide & promote… Personal attention, involve parents, support rigorous instruction, & promote student health

American High Schools Many high school graduates are poorly prepared for College demands of a modern, high-performance workplace New mission for the 21st century addressed the following problems (National Commission on the High School Senior Year, 2001): Better instruction to enable all students to graduate from high school & succeed in post-secondary education & careers Need higher expectations for student achievement Example: senior year U.S. high school students spend too much time working in low-level service jobs (14 to 20 hours a week) Better communication & coordination between K-12 & above

Dropping Out of High School Viewed as a serious educational & societal problem for many decades Adolescents approach adult life with educational deficiencies

Dropping Out of High School The Causes School-related problems Economic reasons Socioeconomic status Friends drop out Personal reasons Reducing the Dropout Rate Early detection of school-related difficulties Get engaged with school in positive ways Early reading programs, tutoring, counseling, & mentoring Create caring environments & relationships, use block scheduling, & offer community-service opportunities

Transition: High School to College Replays the top-dog phenomenon More impersonal school structure Peers from diverse backgrounds Focus on assessment Reduced contact with parents

Transition: College to Work Having a college degree is a strong asset College graduates earn considerably more money in their lifetimes…but often leave college in debt Often a difficult transition U.S. colleges: develop general skills rather than vocationally specific skills Many graduates: poorly prepared for specific jobs Difficulty obtaining the type of job they desire, or any job Bouncing from one job to another not unusual

Social Context of Schools Social context differs at the different levels of school Preschool: A protected environment; Limited social setting Children interact with one or two teachers Almost always female teachers Modifies some patterns of behavior developed through family experiences. The Elementary School: Classroom is still the major context -- a social unit Social expression is more complex Teachers & peers have a prominent influence on children The teacher symbolizes authority The peer group becomes more salient

Social Context of School Middle or Junior High School School environment increases in scope & complexity. Social field expands-- school as a whole rather than the classroom Socially interact with many different teachers & peers from a range of social & ethnic backgrounds A greater mix of male & female teachers Extracurricular activities, clubs, community High School School as a social system

School Size & Class Size Increased size of secondary schools in the United States: Increasing urban enrollments Decreasing budgets Is bigger better? No systematic relation between school size & academic achievement has been found More prosocial & possibly less antisocial behavior occur in small schools (Rutter & others, 1979) Substantial reduction in class size does improve student achievement (Blatchford & Mortimore, 1994; Finn, 2002)

Managing Classroom Climate Strategies for creating a positive classroom environments Using an authoritative strategy Effectively managing the group’s activities Strategies of Classroom Management Authoritative Encourages independent thinking & doing Consistent monitoring; caring attitude; limit setting Verbal give and take Authoritarian Restrictive & punitive Focus on keeping order, not on learning Permissive Autonomy with little guidance, boundaries, or support No safety

Well Managed Classroom Fosters learning Clear rules & procedures – the safety of boundaries Organization of groups Pacing & monitoring activities Prevents academic & emotional problems from developing Activities absorb & motivate students Students busy with active & challenging tasks Promotes motivation Consider person-environment fit

Teachers & Parents Teachers Parents & Schools Enthusiasm, ability to plan, poise, adaptability, warmth, flexibility Awareness of individual differences Parents & Schools important role in the adolescent’s success in school family management practices (structure & organization) Routine & achievement expectations Positively related to grades & self-responsibility Negatively to school-related problems (Taylor, 1996) Being involved in schooling

Peers & Bullying Structure of middle school Peer Statuses Status Group activity -- witnesses Bullying 1 in 3 Loneliness Difficulty making friends Cyberbullying Suicide, depression, health problems, anxiety, sleep, etc.

Bullying Verbal or physical bx intended to disturb someone less powerful Boys, younger middle school students, students with disabilities Victims: loneliness, difficulty making friends Bullies: low grades, smoke, drink alcohol

Bullying Victims Bullies Short-term: depressed, disinterest in school, avoid school Headaches, sleep problems, stomach pain, feeling tired Suicidal ideation; more likely to have health problems Long-term: in adulthood Depression, low self-esteem Bullies Short-term: Depression, suicidal ideation; More likely to have health problems Long-term: 60% -- 1 criminal conviction; 33% had 3 or more

Bullying & Prevention School climate: high academic standards, parental involvement, effective discipline Olweus Bullying Prevention www.colorado.edu/espv/blueprints Bully-Proofing Your School www.sopriswest.com Steps to Respect School wide approach, training staff & parents, teaching students to recognize and not tolerate www.cfchildren.org

Bullying & Prevention Get older peers to intervene Develop school wide rules & post them Form friendship groups for victims of bullying Incorporate anti-bullying messages into community Parents – reinforce positive behavior & appropriate interpersonal interactions Identify early & use social skills training Encourage contact with helping professional School programs to counteract bullying Model interactions that do not include bullying or aggression