1 Chapter 9 The Motivation to Work Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Karl Weatherly/Getty Images

2 Module 1: An Introduction to Motivation Central position of motivation in psychology Motivation concerns conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, & direction of ongoing behavior Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3 Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology First theories anchored motivation in notions of instincts (Freud) “Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like need, motive, & drive (Maslow) Behaviorist approach (Skinner) Field theory (Lewin) - Group dynamics Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4 Metaphors For Motivation Person as machine –People’s behaviors & actions are reflexive & involuntary, performed without conscious awareness –Pushed by internal needs –Pulled by environmental stimuli Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5 Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d) Person as judge –Individual seeks information about extent person & others perceived as responsible for positive & negative events –Hypothesizes about foundation for events & actions of others Person as intentional –Develops goals & plans Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. PhotoDisc/Getty Images

6 Meaning & Importance of Motivation in the Workplace Motivation & performance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (Motivation x Ability) Situational Constraints =PERFORMANCE –

7 Motivation & Work-Life Balance Investigates whether satisfaction one experiences at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non- work & vice versa Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8 Motivation & Attitudes Attitudes –Relatively stable feelings or beliefs directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, or jobs –Have become less important in study of work motivation over last several decades Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

9 Motivation & Personality Consistent relationships exist between personality characteristics & performance motivation Neuroticism negatively related to performance motivation Conscientiousness positively related to performance motivation Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

10 Module 2: Motivational Theories – Classic Approaches Person-as-machine theories –Maslow’s need theory Internal mechanical theory All humans have basic set of needs that express themselves over life span of individual as internal “pushes” or drives Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

11 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

12 Maslow’s Need Theory Physiological needs –Basic needs like food & water Security needs –Need to produce a secure environment Love or social needs –Desire to be accepted by others Esteem needs –Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities Self-actualization –Desire to develop capabilities to fullest Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

13 Maslow’s Need Theory Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels Fits person-as-machine metaphor Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

14 Variations on Maslow’s Theory Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966) –2 basic needs, not 5 –Needs are independent (not hierarchical) –1) Hygiene needs Maslow’s physical & security needs –2) Motivator needs Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

15 Variations on Maslow’s Theory (cont'd) ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972) –3 basic needs, not 2 or 5 –Levels: Existence (E) Relatedness (R) Growth (G) –Has not garnered much support Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16 Reinforcement Theory: An External mechanical theory Behavior depends on 3 elements: stimulus, response, & reward Contingent reward –Reward depends on response Intermittent & continuous rewards –Intermittent rewards produce higher performance levels Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Martial Colomb/Getty Images

17 Person-as-Godlike Theories: The Scientist Model Vroom’s VIE theory –Valence Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome. –Instrumentality Perceived relationship between performance & attainment of a certain outcome. –Expectancy Perceived relationship between effort and performance. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

18 Scientist Models (cont'd) Dissonance theory –Suggests that tension exists when individuals hold incompatible thoughts –Assumes that individuals always seek some sense of “balance” & will direct their behavior toward seeking & maintaining that balance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

19 Scientist Models: Equity theory Individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs & outcomes Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of “comparison others” Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.2 Mathematical Description of Equity Theory

20 Module 3: Modern Approaches to Work Motivation Person-as-intentional –Goal-setting theory Notion of goal as a motivational force Distinction between goal acceptance & goal commitment Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images

21 Diagram of Goal Theory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.3 A Diagram of Goal Theory

22 Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd) Feedback loop important between knowledge of results & intermediate stages Control theory –Based on principle of feedback loop –Assumes individuals compare a standard to an actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring outcome into agreement with a standard Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

23 Control Theory View of Goal Setting Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.4 Control Theory View of Goal Setting Source: Austin and Klein (1996).

24 Relationships Among Needs, Motives, Goals, & Performance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.5 The Relationships among Needs, Motives, Goals, and Performance Source: Locke & Latham (1996).

25 Control Theories & the Concept of Self-Regulation Simple control systems model Self-regulation is compatible with control theory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.6 Simple Control Systems Model Source: Taylor, Fisher, & Ilgen (1984).

26 Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory Belief in one’s capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal –Developed & increased by: Mastery experiences Modeling Social persuasion Physiological states Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

27 Action Theory (Rubicon theory) Broad consideration of role of intention in motivated behavior & connection between intention & action Action phases in active goal pursuit –Predecisional –Postdecisional –Actional –Evaluative Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

28 Action Theory (cont'd) Action has 2 elements –Action process –Action structure Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Figure 9.7 The Action Process Source: Frese & Zapf (1994).

29 Common Themes in Modern Approaches Intention plays key role in motivated behavior Concept of feedback critical in considering anything but the simplest act at one point in time Theory should include element of person-as-scientist Theory should include concept of self-assessment Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate” motivation theory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

30 Module 4: Practical Issues in Motivation Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Motivation can be measured Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ) –Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation Desire to learn Mastery Other referenced goals Competitiveness Worry Emotionality

31 Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation Hofstede’s cultural theory –Cultures differ on 5 dimensions Collectivism/individualism Uncertainty avoidance Masculinity/femininity Power dimensions Long-term vs. short-term orientation –Application to MTQ Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images

32 Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation (cont'd) Types of motivational practices employed by managers across all cultures –Differential distribution of rewards –Participation in goal setting & decision making –Design & redesign of jobs & organizations –Quality improvement Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

33 Generational Differences & Work Motivation Generation –Defined by group members who share birth years & significant life events –e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Generation Yers Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images

34 Generational Differences (cont'd) Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers –Younger employees appear to be more “me” oriented –Today’s workers value “pride in work” less than workers of 1974 –Work is less important now than 25 years ago –Work becomes less idealized as workers age Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

35 Motivational Interventions Contingent rewards Job enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics) Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Task feedback Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

36 Motivational Interventions (cont'd) Productivity Measurement & Enhancement System (ProMES) –Utilizes goal setting, rewards, & feedback to increase motivation & performance –Evidence shows significant gains in productivity following use of ProMES Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

37 ProMES Steps for Implementation 1)Forming a design team 2)Identifying objectives 3)Identifying indicators 4) Defining contingencies 5) Designing the feedback system 6) Giving & responding to feedback 7) Monitoring the system Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

38 Permissions Slide 1: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Karl Weatherly/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SP000357, Filename: JPG Slide 5: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, PhotoDisc/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SO000182, Filename: JPG Slide 16: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Martial Colomb/Getty Images, Source Image ID: LS000068, Filename: JPG Slide 20: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images, Source Image ID: SP003786, Filename: JPG Slide 23: Figure 9.4 from Austin, J. T., & Klein, H. J. (1996). Work motivation and goal striving. In K. R. Murphy (Ed.), Individual differences and behavior in organizations, p San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. This material is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Slide 25: Figure 9.5 from Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1996). Goal setting theory: An introduction. In R. M. Steers, L. W. Porter, & G. A. Bigley (Eds.), Motivation and leadership at work, pp Copyright © New York: McGraw Hill. Used by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies. Slide 26: Figure 9.6 from Taylor, M. S., Fisher, C. D., & Ilgen, D. R. (1984). Individuals’ reactions to performance feedback in organizations. In K. M. Rowland & G. R. Ferris (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management, Vol. 2, Fig. 1, p. 84. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier Science. Slide 29: Figure 9.7 from Frese, M., & Zapf, D. (1994). Action as core of work psychology: A German approach. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, 2 nd ed., Vol. 4, pp Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press. Copyright Used by permission of Leaetta M. Hough, The Dunnette Group, St. Paul, MN. Slide 32: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: TR001216, Filename: JPG Slide 34: McGraw-Hill Education Digital Image Library, D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images, Source Image ID: LS003963, Filename: JPG