ch 21 Sensation & Perception Ch. 2: Physiology of Perception © Takashi Yamauchi (Dept. of Psychology, Texas A&M University) Main topics –Neurons –Vision –Transforming light into electricity –Pigments and perception

ch 22 Key terms Staining Doctrine of specific nerve energy Modular organization Primary receiving areas Temporal, parietal, occipital lobe Neurons (axon, dendrite, synapse, cell body) Action potential, resting potential Excitatory/inhibitory neurons (transmitters)

ch 23 Sample questions Describe the basic roles of “action potential,” “neurotransmitter,” and “synapse.” Describe the major differences between the rods and the cones. What is the “blind spot”?

ch 24 Anatomy Lesson by Dr. Nicholaes (painted by Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn in 1632)

ch 25 Some brief history “Anatomy of the Brain” by Thomas Willis (1664) Oxford physician The first major work on the brain. Present the results of dissections of a human brain. Staining By Gamillo Golgi (1873) Injecting dyes into the nervous system Enabled the visualization of neurons

ch 26 A nerve cell (neuron) shown by the Golgi method. nedPyramidalCell.jpg

ch 27 Doctrine of specific nerve energy –By Johannes Mueller (1842) –Our perceptions depend on “nerve energies” reaching the brain and that the specific quality we experience depends on which nerves are stimulated.

ch 28 Basic structure of the brain Modular organization –Specific functions are served by specific areas of the cortex. –Primary receiving areas: Occipital lobe (seeing) Temporal lobe (hearing) Parietal lobe (touching)

ch 29 Source: Kandel et al., 1994

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ch 212 Human brain

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ch 215 Neuron Key components: –Cell body, dendrite, axon, and synapse

ch 216 Neuron I

ch 217 Neuron II

ch 218 Neuron III

ch 219 Neuron IV

ch 220 Neurons Dendrites Cell body Axon

ch 221 Perception involves Transduction and neural processing And then behavior Inform ation Behavior /action

ch 222 Transduction –Different types of information (air vibration, light energy) is transformed into a common neural language in the brain  neural information –  this process is called “TRANSDUCTION.”

ch 223 Questions (1) What is the mechanism of that process? (2) What is “neural energy”?

ch 224 Transduction: Examples –Touching a mouse, open a program, typing some words. –Driving a car

ch 225 Neural energy What is neural energy? –It is basically a conversation between neurons. Conversation? They talk to each other? Yap.

ch 226 How do neurons talk to each other? Neurons talk to each like a computer does. Neurons talk to each other by sending electrical signals.

ch 227 How so? A neuron is immersed in liquid rich in ions (molecules that carry electrical charge). This figure shows the high concentration of positively charged sodium (NA+) and the high concentration of positively charged potassium (K+).

ch 228 Ion? An ion is an atom or group of bonded atoms which have lost or gained one or more electrons, making them negatively or positively charged. A negatively charged ion has more electrons in its electron shells than it has protons in its nuclei. A positively-charged ion has fewer electrons than protons. An atom is the smallest particle still characterizing a chemical element; it is composed of various subatomic particles: Electrons have a negative charge; they are the least heavy (i.e., massive) of the three types of basic particles. Protons have a positive charge with a free mass about 1836 times more than electrons. Neutrons have no charge, have a free mass about 1839 times the mass of electrons. (Wikipedia.org) Atom?

ch 229 Neurons talk to each other electronically by sending chemicals (neurotransmitters) from one neuron to other neurons. Neurons are not directly attached but are connected indirectly at a juncture called “synapse.”

ch 230 Synapse

ch 231 DendriteAxon Synapse Neurons (schematic Illustration) When an electric signal reaches at the end of the axon of a neuron, that neuron releases “neurotransmitters”

ch 232 DendriteAxon Synapse Synapse and neurotransmitter The neurotransmitters reach a terminal of a dendrite of the other neuron, and change the neuron’s resting potential.

ch 233 Resting potential The electrical charge when a neuron is at rest is called “resting potential.”  -70millivolt

ch 234 Dendrites collect electrical signals from other neurons. Dendrites forward these signals to the cell body. axon dendrites

ch 235 axon dendrites Firing (spike) No Firing Accumulation of signals When the signals that gather at the cell body exceed a threshold, the axon triggers a new signal (i.e., spike).

ch 236 DendriteAxon Synapse Neurotransmitters can send positive or negative signals. Neurotransmitters can open positive or negative gates. Some neurotransmitters open positive gates. Other neurotransmitters open negative gates.

ch 237 axon dendrites Basically there are two types of neuro-transmitters. One that sends excitatory (+) signals (transmitter), and the other that sends inhibitory (-) signals. So, the excitatory neurons enhance the activity of other neurons; the inhibitory neurons suppress the activity of other neurons. axon dendrites

ch 238 Demonstration

ch 239 Activities of neurons can be schematically shown as B a1 a2 a3 a4 The firing rate of neuron B is determined by the activation sent by neurons a1-a4.

ch 240 Summary A neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body and an axon. Neurons are not directly attached but are indirectly connected at synapses. One neuron sends an electrical signal to another neuron by releasing neurotransmitters. Some neurons send excitatory signals (+); others send inhibitory signals (-).

ch 241 What does this tell? (1) Perception can be examined by the activity of neurons. –When we are perceiving something, some neurons are firing. When we see a picture like this, neurons that respond to different colors, shapes, texture,… are firing together.

ch 242 Bridging the activity of neurons and behavior (perception) Single cell recording EEG / ERP (Event related potential/evoked potentials) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

ch 243 Single cell recording

Deep brain stimulation (12 minutes) – FQ&feature=related ch 244

ch 245 ERP

ch 246 ERP II

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ch 248 Biofeedback Neurofeedback for attention deficit disorder UG6BDA8wI

ch 249 PET & fMRI

ch 250 fMRI Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 251 fMRI Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 252 fMRI Setup

ch 253 Visit mmies.htm

ch 254 fMRI Experiment Stages: Prep 1) Prepare subject Consent form Safety screening Instructions 2) Shimming putting body in magnetic field makes it non-uniform adjust 3 orthogonal weak magnets to make magnetic field as homogenous as possible 3) Sagittals Take images along the midline to use to plan slices Note: That’s one g, two t’s Source: Jody Culham’s fMRI for Dummies web sitefMRI for Dummies

ch 255 fMRI Experiment Stages: Anatomicals 4) Take anatomical (T1) images high-resolution images (e.g., 1x1x2.5 mm) 3D data: 3 spatial dimensions, sampled at one point in time 64 anatomical slices takes ~5 minutes Source: Jody Culham’s fMRI for Dummies web sitefMRI for Dummies

ch 256 MRI Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 257 MRI Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 258 fMRI Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 259 fMRI Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 260 PET (Normal resting pattern) Source: Kandel et al., 1994

ch 261 PET (visual & auditory stimulation) Source: Kandel et al., 1994

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ch 263 fMRI and a lie detector (10min) 7YWK0WQ

ch 264 TMS Transcranial magnetic stimulation –Disrupt the electrical activity of neurons in a targeted area by a strong magnetic field (4:15) – iA

ch 265 ERP, PET, &MRI Subjects carry out some psychological tasks (e.g., visual perception) Trace neural activities of the brain. Identify the brain location in which the psychological function takes place. Bridge psychological functions and their brain locations.

ch 266 Visual perception What is the difference between (a) & (b)? What is going on in your head when you see (a) versus when you see (b)? (a) (b)

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ch 269 How about this?

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ch 276 What’s going on? When you see the square, what’s going on? How do you find out?

ch 277 In terms of the activity of neurons, what is the difference between A and B ? Any guess? A. B.

ch 278 Measuring the electrical activity of a neuron directly by inserting a thin needle into animal brains.

ch 279 Time 0t The frequency of action potential Time 0 t The number of action potential emitted by a neuron is correlated with the intensity of the stimulus. Time 0 t 5 units 10 units 20 units

ch 2 80 Physical quantities Time 0 t 0 t 5 units 20 units Perceived quantities

ch 281 Questions: What happens to B? 0 t

ch 282 Questions: What happens to B? ExcitatoryInhibitory

ch 283 Specificity coding vs. Distributed coding How are objects represented in the visual system? Think about human faces. Every face is different. So do we need an infinite number of neurons to represent individual faces?

ch 284 Specific coding? A single neuron responds to each face?

ch 285 Specific coding? A single neuron responds to each face?

ch 286 Neurons in the hippocampus respond specifically to an individual person, such as Halle Berry, her face picture, her name, and pictures of her dressed as Catwoman from Batman. But the hippocampus is a memory storage site. So, these specific neurons are responding to specific memory of a familiar person.

ch 287 Distributed coding The same set of neurons respond to different faces but in different degrees.

ch 288 Combinations of neurons can express lots of different faces