CHAPTER 8 Influence (a social-psychological perspective)

Questions to ponder Diplomacy is the art of letting someone else have your way. ---Daniele Vare, Italian diplomat

Learning objectives 1.Remember that influence strategies and tactics are designed for attitudinal or behavioral change. 2.Learn how to pursue the central and peripheral routes to persuasion from an influencer’s angle. 3.Learn how to intellectually resist the persuasive effects of messages devised by influence seekers.

Outline 1.Two Routes to Influence: An Organizing Model 2.The Central Routes to Influence: The Message and Its Delivery 3.Peripheral Routes to Influence 4.The Role of Receivers—Targets of Influence 5.Chapter Summary 6.Assignment

1. Two Routes to Influence: An Organizing Model Key factors in the influence process, informed by Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication (1948). Alternatively, a more contemporary approach to how persuasion works, ie, an organizing model developed by Richard Pretty and John Cacioppo (1986a, 1986b), suggestive of two general paths by which people are persuaded. Q: What are they, in Pretty and Cacioppo’s terms?

Straightforward? The first one occurs consciously and involves integrating the message into the individual’s previously existing cognitive structures. The second route to persuasion, the peripheral route, is characterized by subtle cues and context, with less cognitive processing of message.

2. The Central Route: The Message and Its Delivery Facts and ideas are clearly important in changing another person’s opinions and perceptions, but the effectiveness of persuasion effort depends on how the facts and ideas are selected, organized, and presented. Then, 3 major issues to consider when constructing a message: the content of the message, the structure of the message, and the delivery style.

Sussman(1999: 4)

2.1 Message Content-1 1. Make the Offer Attractive to the Other Party: emphasize the TOS’s potential advantage of accepting the proposal; make sure of TOS’s understanding; and to counteract TOS’s objections. 2. Frame the Message So TOS will Say “Yes ”: To put TOS in the mind-set of saying yes. 3. Make the Message Normative 符合标准 / 规范 To capitalize on people’s self-image, to show TOS that by following a course of action, they will be acting in accordance both with her values and with some higher code of conduct. 4. Suggest an “Agreement in Principle” 原则性协议 agreement on a general principle

2.2 Message Structure-1 1.One- and Two-Sided Messages (p.208) Q: Which is most effective? A: Two-Sided approach. 2. Message Component Break your argument into smaller, more understandable pieces for the TOS to understand and accept (Fisher, 964; Ikle, 1964) 3. Repetition Repetition makes the messages understood. 4. Conclusions Don’t assume but ensure that your argument is completely understood. Explicit conclusions help!

2.2 Persuasive Style: How to Pitch the Message-1 1. Encourage Active Participation The more involved, the more likely the target is to change attitude and belief. 2. Use Vivid Language and Metaphors “Our paralysis and fear is our competitor’s greatest asset. (Sussman, 1999) 3. Incite Fears “If you do X, Then I will forced to do Y ”. 4. Violate the Receiver’s Expectations “good cop, bad cop”, sharp contrast effect Great orators: Winston Churchill, Martin Luther King, Jr.

2.4 Section Summary Negotiators need to take care in constructing a persuasive message. When messages are well crafted and influence does successfully occur through the “central route”, the change in the target’s attitudes is more likely to be long lasting and resistant to counterinfluence. So what? In our writing and speaking for the effect of persuasiveness, we need to consider aspects of the message content, message structure, and delivery style.

3. Peripheral Routes to Influence Through the “peripheral” route ： the receiver attends less to the substance of persuasive arguments and is instead susceptible to more “automatic” influence through subtle cues. (p. 212) Influence strategies and tactics informed by the work of psychologist Robert Cialdini 2000): 1.message aspects, 2.attributes of the persuader, and 3.elements of the influence context.

3.1 Aspects of Messages That Foster Peripheral Influence 1 Message order Do not place the important point in the middle of the message (Bettinghaus,1966) (Primacy & Recency effect) 2 Format Certain arguments or appeals may be more or less effective depending on the channel in use or the format of the presentation. (Barry and Fulmer, 2004) One way that a choice of message format can induce peripheral influence is if it elicits a snap judgment regarding the legitimacy of argument. (for more, see Herb Cohen, 1980) 3 Distractions Distraction apparently absorb the effort that the other party normally would put into building counterarguments

3.2 Source Characteristics That Foster Peripheral Influence When the recipients of a persuasive message are unmotivated or unable to attend closely to the substance of the persuasive appeal, they become vulnerable to source effect. A wide variety of source effects can potentially have an effect on the recipient of a persuasive message. Here is a discussion of 3 broad categories: 1. Credibility 2. Attractiveness, and 3. Authority

3.2.1 Source Credibility Source credibility depends mostly on 3 things: 1) the qualifications of sources, 2) the perceived trustworthiness of source, and 3) self-presentation. Many other factors contribute to source credibility: (1) Personal Reputation for Integrity (2) “Benefit-of-the-Doubt” First Impression (3) Intension to Persuade (4) Use or Minimize Status Differences (5) Appearance and Self-Presentation (6) Associates (7) Perceived Expertise (8) Persistence and Tenacity

3.2.2 Personal Attractiveness Some ways that an individual can enhance his personal attractiveness to a target of influence or a negotiating opponent: (1) Friendliness (2) Ingratiation (3) Likeability (4) Helping the Other Party (5) Perceived Similarity (6) Emotion

3.2.3 Authority The principle of authority: People with authority have more influence than those without authority. People will go to great lengths when their behavior is legitimized by an authority figure (see Stanley Milgram(1974)’s classic studies of obedience to authority) Authority (eg doctor) is more than positions; it can further lead to attributions of expertise. (Cialdini, 2001) Authority can take different forms and yield different outcomes, e.g. the distinction btwn “soft” (expertise) vs “harsh” (position) influence tactic. Which is more compelling?

3.2.3 Authority Cialdini’s advice (2001:197) for dealing with influence-seeking authority figures: Ask two questions: 1.Is this authority truly an expert? (expertise?) 2.How truthful can you expect this expert to be? （ the motive of the alleged authority?)

3.3 Aspects of Context That Foster Peripheral Influence Aspects of the situation beyond the message itself and the sender of the message that create opportunities to pursue the peripheral route to influence. Five strategies are discussed. 1.Reciprocity 2.Commitment 3.Social Proof 4.Scarcity 5.Use of Reward and Punishment

3.3.1 Reciprocity Straightforward? This norm is thought to be pan-cultural (Gouldner, 1960). its role in negotiation of “give and take” Even a compliment, such as a reference to TOS’ positive behavior in a prior discussion as a referent power! Q: How to counter the apparent powerfulness of the norm? to refuse all favors? Or what? (p.223) Key: The “rule says that favors are to be met with favors; it does not require that tricks be met with favors” (Ciadini, 2001: 47)

3.3.2 Commitment (p ) “commitment to a position” 坚持立场 relying heavily on people’s common need to appear consistent, both to themselves and others. Then what? bait-and-switch sales technique (see Box 8.2 for a cautionary tale involving commitment to the purchase of a car, p.224) Q: How to combat commitment strategies? Key: Being forewarned is being forearmed. Also follow Ciadini’s (2001) suggestion (p.224). Be aware of all the agreements you strike during a negotiation, even those small, innocuous ones.

3.3.3 Social Proof The principle of social proof suggests that people look to others to determine the correct response in many situations, and often behave in certain ways because everyone else is doing so. The principle of social proof works because questionable information is given weight in decisions.

3.3.4 Scarcity The principle of scarcity suggests that when that when things are less available, they will have more influence. In negotiations, the scarcity influence strategy may be operating whenever there appears to be a great demand for a product.

3.3.5 Use of Reward and Punishment These resources can be used in at least two major ways. (1) negotiator can use exchange—the process of offering resources of favors to secure the other’s compliance and cooperation. (2) negotiators attempt to use this power is through pressure—that is, by the threat of punishment. Pressure tactics produce, at best, short-term compliance with request, but they also are likely to elicit resistance from the other party.

3.4 Section Summary Persuaders can use several peripheral influence tools, e.g. factors related to the message itself, characteristics of the message source, and aspects of the influence context. Influence targets are particularly susceptible to peripheral forms of influence to the extent that they are unmotivated and/or unable to pay careful attention to the argumentative substance of the influence- seeker’s message.

4. The Role of Receivers: Targets of Influence Just as negotiators-as-message-senders can work to increase their credibility and attractiveness, 1) receivers can signal the sender about the general acceptability and favorableness of the message being sent, AND 2) senders can monitor the receiver’s receptiveness and adapt the messages accordingly. (p.227) Followed is a here review of a few key factors

4.1 Exploring or Ignoring the Other’s Position Explore by the use of questions. (see examples, pp ) ! Two ways to encourage, support, or direct the other’s communication. 1. Selectively Paraphrase Repeat in your own words what was said, and the correction process until TOS is satisfied (e.g. “Let me see if I understand the point you just made.”)

4.1 Exploring or Ignoring the Other’s Position 2. Reinforce Positions You Like in TOS’ Proposals People are more likely to repeat behavior that is rewarded than behavior that is not rewarded (classical theories of behavior). Then, how? 1) to acknowledge and support a point (e.g. “That’s an interesting point”) 2 ） to compliment speakers and express appreciation 3 ） to separate particular parts of a statement you like from those parts you don’t like and to encourage TOS to develop the favorable points.

4.2 Resisting the Other’s Influence Alternatively, 3 major things by listeners to resist the other’s influence efforts: 1. Have a BATNA, and Know How to Use it (p.230) Having a BATNA is as a source of leverage but its effective use relates to receiver’s awareness of its existence. If necessary, share that fact. 2. Make a Public Commitment (p.230) Sometimes negotiators want TOS to make a public commitment, but not always. Options: get TOS to make a public statement that supports something you want, but even help TOS escape an ill-advised commitment in a face-saving way.

4.2 Resisting the Other’s Influence 3. Inoculate Yourself against the Other Party’s Arguments 3 approaches available: ① Prepare supporting arguments for your position only. ② Develop arguments against your position only and then develop counterarguments ③ Develop arguments both for your original position and against your position, and then develop counterarguments to refute both.

4.2 Resisting the Other’s Influence 3. Inoculate Yourself against the Other Party’s Arguments Negotiators in the role of listener or target of influence can do many things to help blunt the persuasive force of an influence-seeking message that originates with the other party. Negotiators-as-persuaders can take steps to reduce the receiver’s rigidity and defensiveness and to make the receiver more receptive.

5. Chapter Summary Influence (leverage) tools are discussed in two broad categories: the central route to persuasion and the peripheral route to persuasion. Then how the receiver can either shape and direct what the sender is communicating or intellectually resist the persuasive effects of the messages is addressed. Careful attention to source, target, and context factors, rather than just to message factors, is likely to have a positive impact on negotiator effectiveness.

6. Assignment 1. Writing task: Essay on “Dramatic Change in the film The Negotiator: a perspective of negotiation power and influence” Directions: Watch the American film The negotiator and submit to the course site your individual work focusing on the dynamics of the power relationship between the two top police hostage negotiators, namely, Lieutenant Danny Roman (Samuel L. Jackson) and Lieutenant Chris Sabian (Kevin Spacey), at a length of words, to be due on 23 May(Wednesday), 2012.Samuel L. JacksonKevin Spacey References: an introduction to the film including Plot 剧情 and useful links. 2. Reading work Sussman, Lyle. How to frame a message: the art of persuasion and negotiation, Business Horizons, July-August, 1999.