Historical Studies Revision

Overview Popular Recreation Mob Games Occasional Contests Violent Festivals Primitive organisation Field Sports Low culture Public School Athleticism Technical Development Types of School Social Control Character Building Technical Developments Impact on Sport Presumed Values Purpose built facilities Rational Recreation Games Regular Contests Sophisticated organisation Athletics + Swimming Respectable Outdoor Pursuits High Culture Elementary School Drill PT + PE Model Course Social Reform Early Syllabuses Conditioning Late Syllabuses Militarism Post 1944 Therapeutic Limited Facilities

Influences Society’s influence on sport PE + Sport’s influence on society Industrialisation + urbanisation Social classes Communications Religious + secular groups

Popular Recreation Country Pursuits + the Gentry Hunting as an English pastime Coursing, Falconry + Shooting Game + Coarse Fishing The Game of Real Tennis Rowing, Athletics, Pedestrianism Sporting Festivals + Races Wakes + Church Festivals Commercial Fairs Rural Sports + Games Horse Racing + Race Meetings Blood Sports + the Prize Ring Animal Baiting + Fighting Rise and Decline of the Prize Ring Rise + Decline of Contests Decline of the Tournament Fencing + Single Stick Play Changing face of Archery

Public Schools + Athleticism Mob Games + Early Expansion Types of School + their development Extract analysis from Tom Brown’s School Days Social Control in these years Arnold of Rugby + the Post-Arnoldian Tradition Arnold ‘manly piety’ + the production of ‘Christian Gentleman’ Arnold + changes in social control Post-Arnoldian changes Emergence of Athleticism in Public Schools Athleticism + Muscular Christianity Oxbridge Blues, Excellence + Social Control Values + Character Building Effects of Public School Athleticism on Society The Oxbridge Melting Pot Influence on Middle Class Sport Influence on the Lower Classes

Rational Recreation The Development of Summer + Winter Team Games Respectability + Regulations Changing face of Cricket Development of Association Football + Professionalism Rugby Football + Amateurism Development of Field Hockey + Women’s Team Games The Development of Court Games Development of Pub Games Development of Individual Activities The Development of Athletics The Changing Face of Swimming The Development of Outdoor Activities Development of Rowing + Aquatics

Elementary School Developments from Drill to Physical Education Drill + the 1902 Model Course 19 th Century Developments of Drill Boer War + the Model Course Early Syllabus developments P.T. + the Ministry Syllabus The First World War + the 1919 Syllabus The 1933 Syllabus The Emergence of Physical Education Effects of 2 nd World War Moving + Growing Expansion into the 1960s

Social Determinants which Influenced the Development of Sport + PE Work, Increased Free Time + the Growth of Sport The agrarian, industrial + Urban Revolutions and the effect on Sport Development of Industrial Sports Clubs + teams Church + Secular Relationships with Sport Changing Church attitudes to Sport The impact f the YMCA on Sport for the clerical classes Influence of WMC and Friendly Societies on working class sport Local Government Urban Sport Facilities Communications and the Development of Sport Sport and the Age of the Stage Coach Rail Travel and Sport Cycling and Road Improvement

Progression of Activities - Contests Popular Recreation – Activities – prize ring, fencing, archery Origins + administration – how + why developed?...rise + decline of survival + militarism; developmental structure, festivals, academies etc Associated behaviour + links – violent, serious, class variables Public School developments – Activities – fighting + boxing, fencing, archery / shooting Structural development – regularity + class change, fights, training, sporting Social control + character development – boys, prefect- fagging, staff, military, physical, personal, social Impact on society – army / volunteers, sports clubs, respectability Rational recreation - Activities – boxing, fencing, archery Social class involvement, organisation + codification – clubs, governing bodies, championships Regularisation + societal respectability – recreational, respectable, professional

Progression of Activities - Games Popular recreation – Activities – mob games, cricket, pub games Origins + admin – how + why developed…rise + decline…developmental structure, festivals etc Associated behaviour + Societal links – violent, serious, class veriable Public School Developments – Activities – football + hockey, cricket, fives + racquets Structural development – regularity + class change, mob, internal matches, interschool matches Social control + character development – boys, prefect fagging, staff, physical, personal, social Impact on society – social promotion, muscular Christian, old boys’ clubs, sports clubs, governing bodies, respectability Rational Recreation – Activities – invasion games, target games, court games Social class involvement, organisation + codification – clubs, governing bodies, championships Regularisation + societal respectability – recreational, professional

Progression of Activities – Outdoor Activities Popular Recreation – Activities – angling, hunting, boating, sailing, climbing, skating Origins + admin = how + why they developed…rise + decline, developmental structure, festivals, etc Associated behaviour + societal links – wagers, serious, class variables Public School Developments – Activities – rowing, hare + hounds, angling + poaching Structural development – regularity + class change, rise / decline, mob, internal matches, interschool matches Social control + character development – boys, prefect fagging, staff, physical, personal, social Impact on society – social promotion, muscular christian, old boys’ clubs, sports clubs, romanticism, respectability Rational Recreation – Activities – rowing, yachting + dinghy sailing, mountaineering + rock climbing, skiing, canoeing, cycling Social class involvement, organisation + codification – clubs, governing bodies, championships, romanticism + conquest

Progression of Activities – Individual Activities Popular Recreation - Activities – bathing, pedestrianism, gymnastics, athletic contests Origins + admin – how + why they developed, rise + decline, developmental structure, festivals etc Associated behaviour + societal links – waters, serious, class variables Public School Developments – Activities – drill + gymnastics, athletic sports, bathing Structural development – regularity + class changes, swimming baths, gymnasia etc Social control + character development – boys, prefect – fagging, staff, physical, personal, social Impact on Society – social promotion, muscular Christian, sports clubs, old boys’ clubs, romanticism, respectibility Rational Recreation – Activities – amateur athletics, swimming, gymnastics Social class involvement, organisation + codification – clubs, governing bodies, championships, fitness Regularisation + societal respectability – recreational, respectable

Popular Recreation Background – distinction between COURTLY + POPULAR – courtly had courtesy + high culture, whereas popular had peasant vulgarity. Rural gentry were conservative, peasants just wanted escapism + pleasure. Clergy thought it was decadent + irreligious and urban middle classes thought it was indecent. Industrialists thought it made the work- force undisciplined. Popular Recreation v Protestant Work Ethic. GentryPeasantryReform Country Pursuits Hunting – stag / fox / hare Coursing – private + public Shooting – mixed / pigeon Footsportsmen + the Country CodeCarted Trailing Inanimate Racing Flat Steeplechasing Hurdling Point to point PuntersJockey Club Baiting Cock-fightingCock-throwing Bear baiting Bull baiting Dog fighting Suppressed Festivals Regattas (rowing races) Rural Games (Olympian) Military Tournaments Cricket – Hambledon, William Clarke XI Watermen - Doggett Coat+Badge Race Pedestrians – from footman racing Wakes (Religious) / Fairs (Commercial) Mob Games – Ashbourne, Derby A.R.A. A.A.A. Fetes Flower Shows Contests Archery Fencing Rise + decline? Prizering Wrestling Rise + decline? Fencing, archery + boxing federations Dynamic of Change Agrarian Urban IndustrialVictorian Ethics Church + School Work patterns Communications

Popular Recreation Loose distinction between playing + spectating No rules Atmosphere of ‘battle excitement’ Violent, Emotional spontaneity Low restraint Locally Meaningful, No extrinsic Value Group identity Community experience No playing area, duration or number of players Informal organisation depending on local conditions No officials Players Control game Simple + unwritten rules Spontaneous, occasional festival games Conflicting respectable society Natural+social differences influence game patterns Regional variations on rules, area+objectives No division of labour between players No clear game pattern Physical force, not skill

Athleticism in 19 th Century English Public Schools Background – exclusive to middle classes, copies of gentry schools. Headmasters = key to success. Copies of monastic education. Boys’ education considerably ahead of girls’. Definitions:PublicPrivateVoluntaryBoard Athleticism Muscular Christianity Manliness Types of public schools: Pre 1850s: Gentry Clarenden Barbarian (girls – Ladies’ Academies) 1850s Middle classes Proprietary Philistine (girls – 1858 Ladies College) 1870s Monastic Cathedral + Kings 1880s Secular Free (girls – middle / high schools, denominational) 1880s Denominational (girls – 19000s secular, free) Chronological Developments:Stage 1 Mob games + field sports =expansion Young animals Mob activities Stage 2 Regular internal rowing + games =Arnoldian Christian Gentlemen Social Control Stage 3 Regular interschool rowing, athletics + games =athleticism Corinthians Character development Emergence of games – mob regularisation intra-school codification stringent administration interschool codification Social Control variables – boys / boys prefects / fags Head / Sixth Form Staff / boys Character development – physical endeavour with moral integrity Impact on society – boys fixtures Old Boys’ teams + clubs staff + community facilities

Boys’ Athleticism Athleticism Was Physical Endeavour + Moral Integrity Impact on society Boys, Staff Old boys, Head Professionals / instructors Players from players to administrators to patrons Influence of individuals – head + old boys Technical developments Phase 1 – performance, players, professionals, practice Phase 2 – administration, regularity, rules, control, fixtures Phase 3 – facilities, fields, buildings, equipment Regularity Respectability Codification Stringent administration Values Character building ethic Physical, socio/psych Socio-ethical Social control Boys/boys, prefect/fagging, 6 th form committee, house masters, professionals + instructors Assistant teachers, head. Control + punishment Responsibility + respect Moral basis + response Arnold – growth of Godliness + manliness Clarendon Report Church, military Local government communications

Girls’ Athleticism Girls’ Athleticism provision Social impact – Players Administrators patrons Attitudes – Head Assistant teachers girls Alice Ottley High School Cheltnam Ladies College

Relationships between Public School PE + Sport in Society - 19 th Century Conceptual: Institutional Education PE middle + upper classes ElitistCatharsisCharacter developmentHealthDefenceEmpire Leisure ClassParticipation through Stringent organisation Nationalism amateurism + competition Sport + Society

Relationship between Public Schools + Sport in Society - Activities CricketOldest established game, started with the aristocracy. Adopted by schools. Worcestershire played Malvern College in 19 th Century. FootballDeveloped in schools and adopted in an organised form by society TechnicalRugby School 1845 passed on codes for rugby to society. Eaton did same for football Cambridge Rules preceded FA in RowingTechnical developments in schools + universities paralleled that of sporting development. Henley Regatta became a National event. Field SportsRe-emergence of hunting + steeplechasing (eg Shrewsbury) after aristocrats rebelled against the dominance of games in schools. AthleticsInteraction between schools + society. Handicapping in school sports + town sports. Traditional events from ‘rural sports’ were retained, eg ‘putting weight’ + ‘pole leaping’. Also, ‘open’ events + ‘old boys’ races. Public paid to watch.

Relationship between Public Schools + Sport in Society Continued… Facilities – school fields shared by school + old boys. County Cricket ground used for Sports Day. Schools used town baths for swimming School rooms + gymnasia used by clubs Authority – Power moved to Head + staff. Arnold re-assessed aims of education – 1=moral / religious; 2=gentlemanly code; 3=intellectual ability Games began to be seen as a way of achieving educational aims + to combat idleness Staff helped organise games + joined in. Codification of rules came in, different in each school Development of regular competition – inter house + inter school. Pupils left school + played sport at uni, coming back to schools + giving introducing the technical developments from uni It became expected that upper + middle classes participated in sport + this spread to working classes. Participation, growth of clubs + administration, Old Boys + related clubs – Past students formed groups + competed against their school Led to competitions between Old Boys’ teams Middle class took over organised games FA formed, but still dominated by Old Boys clubs until 1880s Cultural influences – Extension of schooling resulted in middle + upper classformal education Emergence of middle classes = organisation, capitalism (shown in sport codification) Industrialism + population increase, increased time + wealth = incrsed sport in society, led to increased quantity + quality of PE. Increased quality of life for working classes = more athleticism in working classes, controlled by middle classes.

Question - Describe the growth of Athleticism in the 19 th Century Public Schools Introduction - Athleticism = association of character training ethic of manliness with physical activities. Statement of intent – chronological description centred on the Barbarian examples, illustrating the increase in significance + scope of physical activities, together with the growing association with character building qualities. There are 3 developmental stages:

Stage 1 – Classical education and the pursuit of leisure – mob games, field sports + boating rather than swimming. Intellectually based schooling. No support for games by the authorities. Games were in free time, organised by the boys, occasional rather than regular, primitive rules, all local. Violent, except cricket. Cricket with rules + matches. Hunting, reading + fishing – part of the social scene. Stage 2 – Godliness – Dr Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Moral training, classical education, physical endeavour. Manly piety, encouraged games, rowing, cross country, athletic contests. Drill + gym = exercise for health + war. 6 th Form ruled by committee. Brutality from 6 th Form, fagging system, but also responsibility + respect. Development of First XI mob games, conditioned locally. Still violent with large numbers. Growing popularity of fives. Trials of courage + honour in the sports arena. House system, boarding schools central to development. Housemasters young and energetic – organising internal + interhouse championships. Small group allegiance. Stage 3 – athleticism from 1870s – wide support from Headmasters after Arnold. Barbarian schools retained academic standards, but any Philistine schools sacrificed it for athleticism. Moral / physical becoming all-important. Oxford Blues return to coach games – professionals employed. Instructors for martial arts + gymnastics. Codification of different sports, regular fixtures, stringent administration regarding dress + behaviour. Provision of outstanding facilities for games often paid for by Old Boys’ Associations. # 5 hours a day available for practice + coaching. Considerable kudos to be a team member. Becoming a compulsory aspect of the school programme. Major influence on University entrance and career. Character building values – to produce robust men with active habits, brisk circulation + manly spirits. For a privileged class to lead society. For a body of Muscular Christians to promote a vigorous attitude to life for themselves + for the working classes. To promote patriotism and a vital diplomatic service for the empire. Defence in war.

In conclusion… Gradual change in philosophy of the school authority + their attitudes ot physical activities. Structural changes from primitive acts organised by the boys in their own free time to a compulsory subect dominating the rest of the curriculum. Fundamentally registering a change from intellectual based education system to one promoting moral + social standards to produce a quality of life for young gentlemen, expressed in the vitality of Muscular Christianity + patriotic nationalism.

Values in Athleticism (preparation for a leadership role in society) SocialisationAsceticism (loyalty to the group)(moral / physical commitment) SocialPsychological Physical to avoid too much to form manly virtuesto produce robust, active + fit men excitement Social cohesion + conformingpromoting physical health to authority + good habits leadership + loyalty Preventing anti-socialstop over-studying + toughen Behaviourup indulgent society games elite Status of games over workcompetitive experience + constructive use of leisure time Dominant values in society = class elitism + Muscular Christianity

Rational Recreation (in Victorian England) Rational Recreation Respectable Form of sport Desirable values In an Identifiable activity Vehicle of moral Reform for Lower classes Symbol of Muscular Christianity Linked with Industrial + social Reform The ‘right’ to Leisure + Escapism Reflected capitalism + work discipline Of industrial society Within emergent Urban Middle class Gentleman amateur

Rational Recreation continued… 1. Activities – challenge / competition (physical endeavour / moral integrity) Individual ActivitiesGames Outdoor swimming athleticsgymnastics contestsgames Pursuits fluid fixed court 2. Social orientation – Classamateurprofessional exclusivityconciliationspectator 3. Organisation – Regularisationcodificationstringent administration

Rational Recreation continued… 4. Social agencies + relationships – internal Schools + industry + religious secular Athleticism industrial associations associations sports clubs eg YMCA eg volunteers societal impact 5. Social Factors – Classificationurbanisation + free time +communications population expansion solvency travel + media 6. Political climateEconomic Climate Geographical Situation

PE in (State) Elementary (Primary) Schools s – Drill. PE in (State) Elementary (primary) Schools Technical Military Therapeutic Skill Based Educative Values Physical Personal Social Provision Schoolroom Hall / Yard Gymnasium / Playing field Social Conditioning (teaching methods) Instructing – class = command + response Training – class = activity Educating – group + individuals = learning + discovery

Lesson Activities 1902 Return to military following Boer War 1904 Syllabus moved away from military towards therapeutic Syllabus became Physical Training 1919 Syllabus moved from PT to PE with educational principles 1933 World War 2 saw a lead towards Moving + Growing – new programme IntroductionRight marker; fall in; stand at ease; attention; right turn; march; halt; about turn; march; halt; left turn; stand at ease Fall in in 2 lines; attention; right turn; quick march; about turn etc…then free gymnastic running; halt; gymnastic skipping; halt; stand at ease Free running; signal – 1 large ring; free running; signal 4 rings; free running; 4 lines Running + leaping; change speed; change direction; change shape; twisting + turning Arms + trunk Attention; arms bend; up; bend; forward; bend; side; bend; down; stand at ease Attention; arms bend + stretch; x2; down; swing forward; up + down; with leg lunges – up + down; halt; stand at ease In lines – elbow circling ; arms swing forwards+ backwards; cross leg sitting knee to ear; lateral reach + twisting; stand + touch ground; lying-hip turning Pulling + pushing – pairs; obstinate calf; knee boxing; chinese boxing; pushing + pulling; tug-o- war; arm lock wrestling; crouch tug-o-war Body + legsAttention; double knee bend; onto hands- down; leg stretches; arms bend + stretch; x2; knees bend; up; stand at ease Attention; feet astride; trunk forward – bend; swing up with arms raised; down + up; swing sideways; bend sideways with arms raised; halt; stand at ease Running – statues; farmers seeking rabbits; rabbits hopping + crouch hopping; alternately still on signal Body curling + stretching; forwards + backwards; lying alternatives; sitting alternatives; kneeling alternatives; standing + twisting Applied work Attention; astride with cross; forward, up, bend down; x2; at ease Jumping astride x2; with arms raising; halt; stand at ease Class activity skills Through vaults in 3s Supported jumps + vaults in 2s + 3s exploring different alternatives. With dumb-bells; attention; swing up+downx2; swing up+through x2; halt; stand at ease; halt; right turn; quick march back to class Catherine Wheel; 1 st line arm raised; ready; cartwheel; stand; 2 nd line etc; return; deep breathing; arms raising on breathing; walk in lines back to class Corner activities – Frog jump into hoops Forward roll along mattress Through vault in 3s Handstanding in pairs Game hand tennis – 2 teams Apparatus work. Twisting + turning on frame apparatus, boxes + benches. Changing round to new apparatus.

Relationships between State School PE + Sport in Society - 20 th Century Working classes DrillOccasional + Pub Sports preparedness limited free time traditional Health obedience P.T. Organised Games Opportunities as amateurs Professional + spectator roles P.E. Widening Shared conceptsAccess to Sport + Recreation

Relationships between State School PE + Sport in Society - 20 th Century Equality of provision similar in state education + leisure. Enthusiastic teachers developed athletics + games as extra-curricular. These led to clubs like cricket in Worcestershire in 1886 – teams were boys + teachers. Gym clubs formed. 19 th Century view = upper + middle classes should pay for working classes to be educated, but not for games – resulting in only drill being developed Minimal provision of buildings, no special PE facilities or playing fields London – inter school football matches, swimming mainly for boys, usually without financial aid 1 st World War – attitudes changed towards values + rights of working class to recreation in society + as a feature of PE. Swedish Drill adopted, undermining the development of apparatus gymnastics + limited recruitment into gym clubs