Unit 9 (Chapters 20 & 21) – Reproductive System and Growth & Development Presented by Dawn Duran, PT, MHS, CSCS Adjunct Professor, Kaplan University

Welcome to the Seminar!

Reproductive System Common general structure and function can be identified between the systems in both sexes Common general structure and function can be identified between the systems in both sexes Systems are adapted for development of sperm or ova followed by successful fertilization, development, and birth of offspring Systems are adapted for development of sperm or ova followed by successful fertilization, development, and birth of offspring Sex hormones in both sexes are important in development of secondary sexual characteristics and normal reproductive system activity Sex hormones in both sexes are important in development of secondary sexual characteristics and normal reproductive system activity

Male Reproductive System Organs are classified as essential or accessory Organs are classified as essential or accessory Essential organs of reproduction are the gonads (testes), which produce sex cells/gametes (sperm) Essential organs of reproduction are the gonads (testes), which produce sex cells/gametes (sperm) Accessory organs of reproduction Accessory organs of reproduction Ducts - passageways that carry sperm from testes to exterior (examples: epididymis, vas deferens) Ducts - passageways that carry sperm from testes to exterior (examples: epididymis, vas deferens) Sex glands - produce protective and nutrient solution for sperm Sex glands - produce protective and nutrient solution for sperm External genitals (penis) External genitals (penis) Foreskin of the penis is also called prepuce Foreskin of the penis is also called prepuce

Male Reproductive System Testes are the gonads of men Testes are the gonads of men Structure and location Structure and location Testes in scrotum—lower temperature Testes in scrotum—lower temperature Covered by tunica albuginea, which divides testis into lobules containing seminiferous tubules Covered by tunica albuginea, which divides testis into lobules containing seminiferous tubules Interstitial cells produce testosterone Interstitial cells produce testosterone

Male Reproductive System Functions include the production of testosterone and sperm Functions include the production of testosterone and sperm Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm production Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm production Normal sperm production requires 3 degrees below body temperature Normal sperm production requires 3 degrees below body temperature Sperm precursor cells called spermatogonia (stem cells for sperm) Sperm precursor cells called spermatogonia (stem cells for sperm) Meiosis produces primary spermatocyte, which forms four spermatids/mature sperm cells with 23 chromosomes each Meiosis produces primary spermatocyte, which forms four spermatids/mature sperm cells with 23 chromosomes each The mature sperm cell has an elongated tail which allows it to “swim” through the female reproductive tract The mature sperm cell has an elongated tail which allows it to “swim” through the female reproductive tract Head contains genetic material Head contains genetic material acrosome The nucleus of a sperm cell is covered by a specialized structure that has lytic enzymes that are capable of penetrating the ova called acrosome The midpience of the sperm contain mitochondria, which provide energy The midpience of the sperm contain mitochondria, which provide energy

Male Reproductive System Production of testosterone by interstitial cells Production of testosterone by interstitial cells Functions of testosterone include… Functions of testosterone include… Masculinization Masculinization Maintenance of male accessory organs Maintenance of male accessory organs Stimulates protein anabolism and development of muscle strength Stimulates protein anabolism and development of muscle strength

Male Reproductive System Reproductive ducts - ducts through which sperm pass after exiting testes until they exit from the body Reproductive ducts - ducts through which sperm pass after exiting testes until they exit from the body Epididymis - single, coiled tube about 6 m in length; lies along the top and behind the testis in the scrotum Epididymis - single, coiled tube about 6 m in length; lies along the top and behind the testis in the scrotum Sperm mature and develop the capacity for motility as they pass through epididymis Sperm mature and develop the capacity for motility as they pass through epididymis

Male Reproductive System Ductus (vas) deferens - receives sperm from the epididymis and transports them from scrotal sac through the abdominal cavity Ductus (vas) deferens - receives sperm from the epididymis and transports them from scrotal sac through the abdominal cavity Passes through inguinal canal Passes through inguinal canal Joins duct of seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct Joins duct of seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct

Male Reproductive System Accessory or supportive sex glands Accessory or supportive sex glands Semen is a mixture of sperm and secretions of accessory sex glands. Averages 3 to 5 ml per ejaculation, with each milliliter containing about 100 million sperm Semen is a mixture of sperm and secretions of accessory sex glands. Averages 3 to 5 ml per ejaculation, with each milliliter containing about 100 million sperm Seminal vesicles (paired) Seminal vesicles (paired) Pouch-like glands that produce about 60% of seminal fluid volume Pouch-like glands that produce about 60% of seminal fluid volume Secretion is yellowish, thick, and rich in fructose to provide energy needed by sperm for motility Secretion is yellowish, thick, and rich in fructose to provide energy needed by sperm for motility

Male Reproductive System Prostate gland – a single, secreting gland Prostate gland – a single, secreting gland Shaped like a doughnut and located below bladder Shaped like a doughnut and located below bladder Urethra passes through the gland Urethra passes through the gland Secretion represents 30% of seminal fluid volume—is thin and milk- colored Secretion represents 30% of seminal fluid volume—is thin and milk- colored Activates sperm and is needed for ongoing sperm motility Activates sperm and is needed for ongoing sperm motility Urethra runs through center of prostate gland Urethra runs through center of prostate gland Serves as passageway for both urine and sperm, making it a component of the urinary system and the reproductive system in the male Serves as passageway for both urine and sperm, making it a component of the urinary system and the reproductive system in the male Urethra is longer in males than in females Urethra is longer in males than in females Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands (paired) Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands (paired) Resemble peas in size and shape Resemble peas in size and shape Secrete mucus-like fluid constituting less than 5% of seminal fluid volume Secrete mucus-like fluid constituting less than 5% of seminal fluid volume Acts as a precoital lubricant for penis Acts as a precoital lubricant for penis

Male Reproductive System External genitals External genitals Penis and scrotum called genitalia Penis and scrotum called genitalia Penis has three columns of erectile tissue—two dorsal columns called corpora cavernosa and one ventral column surrounding urethra called corpus spongiosum Penis has three columns of erectile tissue—two dorsal columns called corpora cavernosa and one ventral column surrounding urethra called corpus spongiosum Glans penis covered by foreskin Glans penis covered by foreskin Surgical removal of foreskin called circumcision Surgical removal of foreskin called circumcision

Disorders of the Male Reproductive System May cause reduced reproductive ability (infertility) or total inability to reproduce (sterility) May cause reduced reproductive ability (infertility) or total inability to reproduce (sterility) Disorders of the testes Disorders of the testes Oligospermia—low sperm production Oligospermia—low sperm production Cryptorchidism—undescended testes Cryptorchidism—undescended testes Testicular cancer—most common in young adult men ages 25 to 35 Testicular cancer—most common in young adult men ages 25 to 35

Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Disorders of the prostate Disorders of the prostate Benign prostatic hypertrophy—enlargement of prostate common in older men Benign prostatic hypertrophy—enlargement of prostate common in older men Prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer deaths in men over age 50 Prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer deaths in men over age 50

Disorders of the Male Reproductive System Inguinal hernia—protrusion of abdominopelvic organs, possibly into the scrotum Inguinal hernia—protrusion of abdominopelvic organs, possibly into the scrotum Disorders of the penis and scrotum Disorders of the penis and scrotum Impotence—failure to achieve erection of the penis Impotence—failure to achieve erection of the penis

Female Reproductive System Organs classified as essential or accessory Organs classified as essential or accessory Essential organs of reproduction are gonads (ovaries), which produce sex cells/gametes (ova) Essential organs of reproduction are gonads (ovaries), which produce sex cells/gametes (ova) Accessory organs of reproduction Accessory organs of reproduction Ducts or modified ducts - including oviducts, uterus, and vagina Ducts or modified ducts - including oviducts, uterus, and vagina Sex glands - including those in the breasts Sex glands - including those in the breasts External genitals referred to as vulva External genitals referred to as vulva Clitoris is made of erectile tissue Clitoris is made of erectile tissue

Female Reproductive System Ovaries Ovaries Structure and location Structure and location Paired glands weighing about 3 g each Paired glands weighing about 3 g each Resemble large almonds Resemble large almonds Attached to ligaments in pelvic cavity on each side of uterus Attached to ligaments in pelvic cavity on each side of uterus

Female Reproductive System Microscopic structure of ovaries Microscopic structure of ovaries Ovarian follicles - contain oocyte, which is immature sex cell (about 1 million at birth). The number of oocytes is greatest at birth. Ovarian follicles - contain oocyte, which is immature sex cell (about 1 million at birth). The number of oocytes is greatest at birth. Primary follicles - about 400,000 at puberty are covered with granulosa cells Primary follicles - about 400,000 at puberty are covered with granulosa cells About 350 to 500 mature follicles ovulate during the reproductive lifetime of most women About 350 to 500 mature follicles ovulate during the reproductive lifetime of most women Mature ovum in its sac is called a Graafian follicle Mature ovum in its sac is called a Graafian follicle Secondary follicles have hollow chamber called antrum Secondary follicles have hollow chamber called antrum Corpus luteum forms after ovulation. Corpus luteum forms after ovulation.

Female Reproductive System Functions Functions Oogenesis - this meiotic cell division produces daughter cells with equal chromosome numbers (23) but unequal cytoplasm. The ovum is large and the polar bodies are small and degenerate. There is only one functional ovum produced at the end of one complete cycle of meiosis. Oogenesis - this meiotic cell division produces daughter cells with equal chromosome numbers (23) but unequal cytoplasm. The ovum is large and the polar bodies are small and degenerate. There is only one functional ovum produced at the end of one complete cycle of meiosis. Production of estrogen and progesterone Production of estrogen and progesterone Granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte in the mature and growing follicles produce estrogen Granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte in the mature and growing follicles produce estrogen Estrogen is responsible for the development and maintenance of secondary female sex characteristics Estrogen is responsible for the development and maintenance of secondary female sex characteristics Corpus luteum produces progesterone Corpus luteum produces progesterone Progesterone is NOT produced continuously throughout the menstrual cycle Progesterone is NOT produced continuously throughout the menstrual cycle

Female Reproductive System Reproductive ducts Reproductive ducts Uterine (fallopian) tubes Uterine (fallopian) tubes Extend about 10 cm from uterus into abdominal cavity Extend about 10 cm from uterus into abdominal cavity Expanded distal end surrounded by fimbriae Expanded distal end surrounded by fimbriae The uterine tubes are NOT in direct contact with the ovaries The uterine tubes are NOT in direct contact with the ovaries Mucosal lining of tube is directly continuous with lining of abdominal cavity Mucosal lining of tube is directly continuous with lining of abdominal cavity Fertilization of the ovum by the sperm occurs in the fallopian tube Fertilization of the ovum by the sperm occurs in the fallopian tube The fertilized egg is called a zygote The fertilized egg is called a zygote

Female Reproductive System Uterus - composed of body, fundus, and cervix Uterus - composed of body, fundus, and cervix Lies in pelvic cavity just behind urinary bladder Lies in pelvic cavity just behind urinary bladder Myometrium is muscle layer Myometrium is muscle layer Endometrium is the layer lost in menstruation Endometrium is the layer lost in menstruation Perimetrium is the outer layer of the uterus Perimetrium is the outer layer of the uterus Implantation of the fertilized egg occurs in the uterus Implantation of the fertilized egg occurs in the uterus

Female Reproductive System Vagina Vagina Distensible tube about 10 cm long Distensible tube about 10 cm long Located between urinary bladder and rectum in the pelvis Located between urinary bladder and rectum in the pelvis Receives penis during sexual intercourse and is the birth canal for delivery of baby at end of pregnancy Receives penis during sexual intercourse and is the birth canal for delivery of baby at end of pregnancy

Female Reproductive System Accessory or supportive sex glands Accessory or supportive sex glands Bartholin’s (greater vestibular) glands Bartholin’s (greater vestibular) glands Secrete mucus-like lubricating fluid Secrete mucus-like lubricating fluid Ducts open between labia minora Ducts open between labia minora Breasts Breasts Located over pectoral muscles of thorax Located over pectoral muscles of thorax Size determined by fat quantity more than amount of glandular (milk- secreting) tissue Size determined by fat quantity more than amount of glandular (milk- secreting) tissue Lactiferous ducts drain at nipple, which is surrounded by pigmented areola; these are the ducts that drain the milk-secreting cells in the breast of a nursing mother, ie they secrete milk Lactiferous ducts drain at nipple, which is surrounded by pigmented areola; these are the ducts that drain the milk-secreting cells in the breast of a nursing mother, ie they secrete milk Lymphatic drainage important in spread of cancer cells to other body areas Lymphatic drainage important in spread of cancer cells to other body areas

Female Reproductive System External genitals External genitals Include mons pubis, clitoris, orifice of urethra, Bartholin’s gland, vagina, labia minora and majora Include mons pubis, clitoris, orifice of urethra, Bartholin’s gland, vagina, labia minora and majora The vulva includes the mons pubis, labia majora and clitoris The vulva includes the mons pubis, labia majora and clitoris Perineum—area between vaginal opening and anus Perineum—area between vaginal opening and anus Surgical cut during birth called episiotomy Surgical cut during birth called episiotomy

Female Reproductive System Menstrual cycle - involves many changes in the uterus, ovaries, vagina, and breasts Menstrual cycle - involves many changes in the uterus, ovaries, vagina, and breasts Lasts about 28 days, but it varies from month to month among individuals Lasts about 28 days, but it varies from month to month among individuals A sudden decrease in estrogen and progesterone will normally cause menstruation A sudden decrease in estrogen and progesterone will normally cause menstruation The endometrium is the mucous membrane lining of the uterus and the layer that is shed during menstruation The endometrium is the mucous membrane lining of the uterus and the layer that is shed during menstruation

Female Reproductive System Phases of the menstrual cycle Phases of the menstrual cycle Menses - about the first 4 or 5 days of the cycle. Characterized by sloughing of bits of endometrium (uterine lining) with bleeding. Menses - about the first 4 or 5 days of the cycle. Characterized by sloughing of bits of endometrium (uterine lining) with bleeding. Proliferative phase - days between the end of menses and secretory phase. Varies in length. Characterized by repair of endometrium Proliferative phase - days between the end of menses and secretory phase. Varies in length. Characterized by repair of endometrium Secretory phase (continued on next slide) Secretory phase (continued on next slide)

Female Reproductive System Secretory phase - the days between ovulation and beginning of next menses Secretory phase - the days between ovulation and beginning of next menses Onset ~14 days before next menses Onset ~14 days before next menses characterized by further thickening of endometrium and secretion by its glands in preparation for implantation of fertilized ovum characterized by further thickening of endometrium and secretion by its glands in preparation for implantation of fertilized ovum combined actions of the anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause ovulation combined actions of the anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause ovulation sudden sharp decrease in estrogens and progesterone bring on menstruation if pregnancy does not occur sudden sharp decrease in estrogens and progesterone bring on menstruation if pregnancy does not occur The ovulating hormone that causes the follicle to rupture and the egg to be expelled is luteinizing hormone (LH) The ovulating hormone that causes the follicle to rupture and the egg to be expelled is luteinizing hormone (LH) Menopause is when a woman’s periods stop at the end of her reproductive life Menopause is when a woman’s periods stop at the end of her reproductive life

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Hormonal and menstrual disorders Hormonal and menstrual disorders Menstrual cramps or dysmenorrhea—painful menstruation Menstrual cramps or dysmenorrhea—painful menstruation Amenorrhea—absence of normal menstruation/failure to have a menstrual period Amenorrhea—absence of normal menstruation/failure to have a menstrual period Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)—collection of symptoms that occur in some women before menstruation Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)—collection of symptoms that occur in some women before menstruation

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Infection and inflammation Infection and inflammation Exogenous infections are often sexually transmitted; endogenous infections are caused by organisms already in or on the body Exogenous infections are often sexually transmitted; endogenous infections are caused by organisms already in or on the body Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)—acute inflammatory condition of the uterus, uterine tubes, or ovaries caused by infection Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)—acute inflammatory condition of the uterus, uterine tubes, or ovaries caused by infection Vaginitis—infection of vaginal lining, it most often results from STDs or yeast infections Vaginitis—infection of vaginal lining, it most often results from STDs or yeast infections

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Tumors and related conditions Tumors and related conditions Myoma or fibroids—benign tumors of the uterus Myoma or fibroids—benign tumors of the uterus Ovarian cysts—fluid-filled enlargements; usually benign Ovarian cysts—fluid-filled enlargements; usually benign Follicular cysts—most common Follicular cysts—most common Luteal cysts—most symptomatic Luteal cysts—most symptomatic Most resolve in 60 days Most resolve in 60 days Endometriosis—presence of functioning endometrial tissue outside the uterus Endometriosis—presence of functioning endometrial tissue outside the uterus

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer in women Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer in women Ovarian cancer can result from metastasis of breast cancer or can arise independently Ovarian cancer can result from metastasis of breast cancer or can arise independently Cervical cancer is often detected by a Papanicolaou test (PAP smear) Cervical cancer is often detected by a Papanicolaou test (PAP smear) Infertility can result from factors such as infection and inflammation, tumors, and hormonal imbalances Infertility can result from factors such as infection and inflammation, tumors, and hormonal imbalances

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Pregnancy What occurs between ovulation and the implantation of the fertilized egg into the uterus? What occurs between ovulation and the implantation of the fertilized egg into the uterus? At ovulation, an ovum is released from the ovary and begins its journey through the uterine tube At ovulation, an ovum is released from the ovary and begins its journey through the uterine tube While in the tube, the ovum is fertilized by a sperm to form the single-celled zygote While in the tube, the ovum is fertilized by a sperm to form the single-celled zygote After a few days of rapid mitotic division, a ball of cells called a morula is formed After a few days of rapid mitotic division, a ball of cells called a morula is formed After the morula develops into a hollow ball called a blastocyst, implantation occurs After the morula develops into a hollow ball called a blastocyst, implantation occurs

Pregnancy What are the functions of the placenta? What are the functions of the placenta?

Pregnancy The placenta is a unique and specialized structure that has many important functions during pregnancy. The placenta is a unique and specialized structure that has many important functions during pregnancy. “Structural anchor” “Structural anchor” “Nutritive bridge” “Nutritive bridge” Hematopoiesis Hematopoiesis Produces hormones Produces hormones Respiration is NOT a function of the placenta Respiration is NOT a function of the placenta The virus that causes German measles (rubella) can easily pass through the placental "barrier".

Stages of prenatal development Conception Conception Occurs during the first two weeks of pregnancy Occurs during the first two weeks of pregnancy Embryonic Embryonic From the time the fertilized egg implants itself onto the uterus until the 11th week of development From the time the fertilized egg implants itself onto the uterus until the 11th week of development According to the book and your test, embryonic phase of development lasts from week 3 through week 8 of gestation According to the book and your test, embryonic phase of development lasts from week 3 through week 8 of gestation Fetal Fetal The remaining period of time in utero until birth The remaining period of time in utero until birth This is the longest stage of prenatal development This is the longest stage of prenatal development

Pregnancy The normal length of gestation for humans is approximately 39 weeks/280 days The normal length of gestation for humans is approximately 39 weeks/280 days Anything less than 37 weeks is considered premature Anything less than 37 weeks is considered premature Anything more than 42 weeks is considered postmature Anything more than 42 weeks is considered postmature All organ systems are formed and functioning by the fourth month of fetal development All organ systems are formed and functioning by the fourth month of fetal development The fetal movement that women experience for the first time between weeks 16 and 18 of pregnancy is known as quickening The fetal movement that women experience for the first time between weeks 16 and 18 of pregnancy is known as quickening

Labor & Delivery Describe the three stages of labor. Describe the three stages of labor. What is the approximate length of each? What is the approximate length of each?

Labor & Delivery Stage one – period from onset of uterine contractions until dilation of the cervix is complete Stage one – period from onset of uterine contractions until dilation of the cervix is complete Lasts 6 to 24 hours Lasts 6 to 24 hours Stage two – period from the time of maximal cervical dilation until the baby exits through the vagina Stage two – period from the time of maximal cervical dilation until the baby exits through the vagina Lasts from a few minutes to an hour (if you are lucky ) Lasts from a few minutes to an hour (if you are lucky ) Stage three – process of expulsion of the placenta through the vagina Stage three – process of expulsion of the placenta through the vagina Normally occurs within 15 minutes after the birth of the baby Normally occurs within 15 minutes after the birth of the baby

Growth & Development The study of aging is called gerontology The study of aging is called gerontology

Infancy Infancy is considered the period from birth to 18 months Infancy is considered the period from birth to 18 months LUCAS GABRIEL

Childhood Childhood ranges from the end of infancy until sexual maturity/puberty (age in girls, in boys) Childhood ranges from the end of infancy until sexual maturity/puberty (age in girls, in boys)

Adolescence & Adulthood Average range of adolescence is years Average range of adolescence is years Adulthood is what we refer to from the age of 20 years and onwards Adulthood is what we refer to from the age of 20 years and onwards The following developmental changes are not completed until early to middle adulthood: The following developmental changes are not completed until early to middle adulthood: Maturation of bone Maturation of bone Closure of growth plates Closure of growth plates Sinus formation Sinus formation

What are the effects of aging? There is a degeneration of bones and joints in particular which may restrict movement There is a degeneration of bones and joints in particular which may restrict movement Skin becomes dryer, thin and less elastic. Pigmentation changes and hair loss are also common. Skin becomes dryer, thin and less elastic. Pigmentation changes and hair loss are also common. Reduced function of the urinary system overall Reduced function of the urinary system overall Renal mass decreases Renal mass decreases Between ages of 30 and 75 the number of nephron units in the kidneys decrease by almost 50% Between ages of 30 and 75 the number of nephron units in the kidneys decrease by almost 50% Respiratory capacity decreases Respiratory capacity decreases Brain mass decreases Brain mass decreases Cardiac output at rest decreases Cardiac output at rest decreases Nerve conduction speed decreases Nerve conduction speed decreases

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