Index Peter Bowers Developing literacy and critical thinking through scientific inquiry about how English spelling works. Structured Word Inquiry

Index English Spelling

Index English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating...

Index English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating... Spelling Instruction

Index English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating... Spelling Instruction ❖ boring, ineffective, memorization, irrelevant (spell checkers)...

Index English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating... Spelling Instruction ❖ boring, ineffective, memorization, irrelevant (spell checkers)...

Index This is a hypothesis... English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating...

Index This is a hypothesis that can be tested through scientific inquiry. English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating...

Index Structured Word Inquiry Developing literacy and critical thinking through scientific inquiry about how English spelling works. This is a hypothesis that can be tested through scientific inquiry. English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating...

Index English spelling works? English Spelling ❖ irregular, unreliable, crazy, frustrating...

Index “…[L]earning to read is learning how to use the conventional forms of printed language to obtain meaning from words… Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg,et al. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading, American Psychological Society, 2,

Index “…[L]earning to read is learning how to use the conventional forms of printed language to obtain meaning from words…This view implies that the child learning how to read needs to learn how his or her writing system works [emphasis added]” (p. 34). Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg,et al. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading, American Psychological Society, 2,

Index “…[L]earning to read is learning how to use the conventional forms of printed language to obtain meaning from words…This view implies that the child learning how to read needs to learn how his or her writing system works [emphasis added]” (p. 34). Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg,et al. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading, American Psychological Society, 2, Assuming English spelling has conventions that work, let’s...

Index Test our systems for teaching spelling against the spelling system.

Index cries sky really ball helpful full see, sea he to, too, two their, there ridiculous receive friends house give package knew, new night laughed, painted, used, sled, been, teen does business brother, hothouse putting stopper, proper prints bankruptcy skiing question Test our systems for teaching spelling against the spelling system.

Index cries sky really ball helpful full see, sea he to, too, two their, there ridiculous receive friends house give package knew, new night laughed, painted, used, sled, been, teen does business brother, hothouse putting stopper, proper prints bankruptcy skiing question What should we do when data does not conform to assumptions of our spelling instruction?

Index cries sky really ball helpful full see, sea he to, too, two their, there ridiculous receive friends house give package knew, new night laughed, painted, used, sled, been, teen does business brother, hothouse putting stopper, proper prints bankruptcy skiing question Question and test those assumptions.

Index A short spelling test... Question and test those assumptions.

Index question

Index

or ?

Index or ? How can we determine the answer?

Index or ? From a popular teacher resource for teaching prefixes and suffixes…

Index or ? From a popular teacher resource for teaching prefixes and suffixes…

Index or ? From the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary… -tion suffix forming nouns of action, condition, etc., such as completion, relation. ORIGIN from Latin participial stems ending in -t + -ion. -tion suffix forming nouns of action, condition, etc., such as completion, relation. ORIGIN from Latin participial stems ending in -t + -ion.

Index or ? From the authoritative Oxford English Dictionary… -tion suffix forming nouns of action, condition, etc., such as completion, relation. ORIGIN from Latin participial stems ending in -t + -ion. -tion suffix forming nouns of action, condition, etc., such as completion, relation. ORIGIN from Latin participial stems ending in -t + -ion.

Index or ? Empirical question

Warrants scientific inquiry. Index or ? Empirical question Warrants

Index or ? Scientific inquiry...

Index or ? Scientific inquiry builds... Systemic understanding

Index or ? Scientific inquiry builds... Systemic understanding Generative learning skills

Index question Investigate word structure & meaning

Index question Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning

Index question Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning

Index question Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning or ?

Index question Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? ques + tion → question or quest + ion → question Investigate word structure & meaning or ?

Index question doesn’t mean anything! Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? ques + tion → question or quest + ion → question * Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Orthographic morphological relatives: 1) Pass the “structure test” (linked by a coherent word sum) quest + ion → question Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Orthographic morphological relatives: 1) Pass the “structure test” (linked by a coherent word sum) quest + ion → question Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Orthographic morphological relatives: 1) Pass the “structure test” (linked by a coherent word sum) 2) Pass the “meaning test” (share a common root origin) quest + ion → question Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Orthographic morphological relatives: 1) Pass the “structure test” (linked by a coherent word sum) 2) Pass the “meaning test” (share a common root origin) quest + ion → question question ORIGIN late Middle English : from Old French question (noun), questionner (verb), from Latin quaestio(n-), from quaerere ‘ask, seek.’ quest ORIGIN late Middle English : from Old French queste (noun), quester (verb), based on Latin quaerere ‘ask, seek.’ See also inquest. Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Orthographic morphological relatives: 1) Pass the “structure test” (linked by a coherent word sum) 2) Pass the “meaning test” (share a common root origin) quest + ion → question question ORIGIN late Middle English : from Old French question (noun), questionner (verb), from Latin quaestio(n-), from quaerere ‘ask, seek.’ quest ORIGIN late Middle English : from Old French queste (noun), quester (verb), based on Latin quaerere ‘ask, seek.’ See also inquest. Etymonline says: quaerere ‘ seek, gain, ask’ Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Word Searcher Finds potentially related words. Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) sequestrated sequestrates unquestioned questioningly questionnaire sequestrating sequestration unquestioning questionnaires sequestrations unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly requested sequester equestrian questioned questioner requesting sequesters equestrians questioners questioning sequestered sequestrate questionable sequestering quest quests bequest inquest quested request bequests conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) sequestrated sequestrates unquestioned questioningly questionnaire sequestrating sequestration unquestioning questionnaires sequestrations unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly requested sequester equestrian questioned questioner requesting sequesters equestrians questioners questioning sequestered sequestrate questionable sequestering quest quests bequest inquest quested request bequests conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions Investigate word structure & meaning Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? sequestrated sequestrates unquestioned questioningly questionnaire sequestrating sequestration unquestioning questionnaires sequestrations unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly requested sequester equestrian questioned questioner requesting sequesters equestrians questioners questioning sequestered sequestrate questionable sequestering quest quests bequest inquest quested request bequests conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions Investigate word structure & meaning sequester from Latin sequester ‘trustee.’ Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? unquestioned questioningly questionnaire unquestioning questionnaires unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly requested equestrian questioned questioner requesting equestrians questioners questioning questionable quest quests bequest inquest quested request bequests conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions Investigate word structure & meaning sequester from Latin sequester ‘trustee.’ Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

quest quests bequest inquest quested request bequests conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions requested equestrian questioned questioner requesting equestrians questioners questioning questionable unquestioned questioningly questionnaire unquestioning questionnaires unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning sequester from Latin sequester ‘trustee.’ bequest ORIGIN Middle English : from be- [about] + Old English cwis [speech,] influenced by bequeath. Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

quest quests inquest quested request conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions requested equestrian questioned questioner requesting equestrians questioners questioning questionable unquestioned questioningly questionnaire unquestioning questionnaires unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning sequester from Latin sequester ‘trustee.’ bequest ORIGIN Middle English : from be- [about] + Old English cwis [speech,] influenced by bequeath. Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

quest quests inquest quested request conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions unquestioned questioningly questionnaire unquestioning questionnaires unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning sequester from Latin sequester ‘trustee.’ bequest ORIGIN Middle English : from be- [about] + Old English cwis [speech,] influenced by bequeath. equestrian ORIGIN mid 17th cent. (as an adjective): from Latin equester ‘belonging to a horseman’ (from eques ‘horseman, knight,’ from equus ‘horse’ ) + -ian. requested equestrian questioned questioner requesting equestrians questioners questioning questionable Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

quest quests inquest quested request conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions unquestioned questioningly questionnaire unquestioning questionnaires unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning sequester from Latin sequester ‘trustee.’ bequest ORIGIN Middle English : from be- [about] + Old English cwis [speech,] influenced by bequeath. equestrian ORIGIN mid 17th cent. (as an adjective): from Latin equester ‘belonging to a horseman’ (from eques ‘horseman, knight,’ from equus ‘horse’ ) + -ian. requested questioned questioner requesting questioners questioning questionable Search Results for "quest" (41 matches) Which have the base and Latin root ‘quaerere’?

quest quests inquest quested request conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions requested questioned questioner requesting questioners questioning questionable unquestioned questioningly questionnaire unquestioning questionnaires unquestionable unquestionably unquestioningly Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning 27 of original 41 potential relatives are actual relatives.

quest quests inquest quested request conquest inquests questing question requests conquests questions requested questioned requesting questioning questionable unquestionable Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning Let’s work with just 18 of those 27

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning Let’s work with just 18 of those 27 quest → quest quests → quest + s inquest → in + quest quested → quest +ed request → re + quest conquest → con + quest inquests → in + quest + s questing → quest + ing question → quest + ion requests → re + quest + s conquests → con + quest + s questions → quest + ion + s requested → re + quest +ed questioned → quest + ion + ed requesting → re + quest + ing questioning → quest + ion + ing questionable → quest + ion + able unquestionable → un + quest + ion + able What does the interrelation of this family look like?

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning quest → quest quests → quest + s inquest → in + quest quested → quest +ed request → re + quest conquest → con + quest inquests → in + quest + s questing → quest + ing question → quest + ion requests → re + quest + s conquests → con + quest + s questions → quest + ion + s requested → re + quest +ed questioned → quest + ion + ed requesting → re + quest + ing questioning → quest + ion + ing questionable → quest + ion + able unquestionable → un + quest + ion + able What does the interrelation of this family look like? un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? un + Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? un + quest + Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? un + quest + ion + Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? un + quest + ion + ing → Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? un + quest + ion + ing → unquestioning un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? con + Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? con + quest + Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? con + quest + s → Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? con + quest + s → conquests un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Investigate word structure & meaning Orthographic morphological relatives

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Etymological relatives... Include a larger family of words: Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Etymological relatives... Include a larger family of words: All those that can be shown in a word matrix (share a base element) un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Etymological relatives... Include a larger family of words: All those that can be shown in a word matrix (share a base element) Also words of the same root origin but not the same base element. un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Etymological relatives... Include a larger family of words: un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing querent, query, disquisition, require, conquer, acquisition, exquisite These words share the root ‘quaerere’ (Etymonline): Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Etymological relatives... Include a larger family of words: Investigate word structure & meaning un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing All these words are related to the Latin root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ querent, query, disquisition, require, conquer, acquisition, exquisite

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Etymological relatives... Include a larger family of words: Investigate word structure & meaning un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing The matrix only shows orthographically morphologically related words querent, query, disquisition, require, conquer, acquisition, exquisite

Index Recall references citing suffix: Teacher resource: action invention location protection vacation

Index Recall references citing suffix: Teacher resource: action → act + ion invention → invent + ion location → locate/ + ion protection → protect + ion vacation → vacate/ + ion

Index Recall references citing suffix: Oxford English Dictionary relation completion

Index Recall references citing suffix: Oxford English Dictionary relation → relate/ + ion completion → complete/ + ion

Index Question:

Index Question: How many of us have explicitly taught our students that asking a question literally means to go on a quest for knowledge?

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Why do most of us fail to see the link between and ? Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling... Investigate word structure & meaning

Index An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences. Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Often directs attention away from spelling-meaning links Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Often directs attention away from spelling-meaning links - Emphasizes the spelling of the syllable pronounced /t ʃ ən/ Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Often directs attention away from spelling-meaning links - Emphasizes the spelling of the syllable pronounced /t ʃ ən/ but not the base (meaning-bearing element). Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences. Often directs attention away from spelling-meaning links - Emphasizes the spelling of the syllable pronounced /t ʃ ən/ but not the base (meaning-bearing element).

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Investigate word structure & meaning /kw ɛ st ʃ / An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences. Often directs attention away from spelling-meaning links - Emphasizes the spelling of the syllable pronounced /t ʃ ən/ but not the base (meaning-bearing element).

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? base spelled Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. base spelled base pronounced /kw ɛ st ʃ / Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. base spelled base pronounced /kw ɛ st ʃ / question, questionable... Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. base spelled base pronounced /kw ɛ st ʃ / /kw ɛ st/ question, questionable... Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. base spelled base pronounced /kw ɛ st ʃ / /kw ɛ st/ question, questionable... quest, inquest, requested... Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. base spelled base pronounced /kw ɛ st ʃ / /kw ɛ st/ question, questionable... quest, inquest, requested... Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. base spelled base pronounced Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? base spelled base pronounced /du:/ doing, undo, redo Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? base spelled base pronounced /d ʌ / doing, undo, redo does, done Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning /du:/ An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? base spelled base pronounced /d ʌ / do ing es ne Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning /du:/ An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? base spelled base pronounced /d ʌ / do + ing → doing do + es → does do + ne → done do ing es ne Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning /du:/ An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation? go + ing → going go + es → goes go + ne → gone do + ing → doing do + es → does do + ne → done do go ing es ne Cannot teach that the pronunciation of morphemes shift across words in English. Investigate word structure & meaning An instructional emphasis on the role of sound in spelling without reference to morphology (or etymology) has predictable consequences.

Index Assumptions of Structured Word Inquiry:

Index Assumptions of Structured Word Inquiry: English spelling makes sense.

Index go + ing → going go + es → goes go + ne → gone do + ing → doing do + es → does do + ne → done do go ing es ne un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Assumptions of Structured Word Inquiry: English spelling makes sense.

Index Assumptions of Structured Word Inquiry: English spelling makes sense. Children deserve to learn how their writing system works. go + ing → going go + es → goes go + ne → gone do + ing → doing do + es → does do + ne → done do go ing es ne un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing

Index Assumptions of Structured Word Inquiry: English spelling makes sense. Children deserve to learn how their writing system works. Teachers require accurate resources and training. go + ing → going go + es → goes go + ne → gone do + ing → doing do + es → does do + ne → done do go ing es ne un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing

Index Investigate word structure & meaning Assumptions of Structured Word Inquiry: English spelling makes sense. Children deserve to learn how their writing system works. Teachers require accurate resources and training. Spelling can be investigated and understood through scientific inquiry -- with the proper tools and resources. go + ing → going go + es → goes go + ne → gone do + ing → doing do + es → does do + ne → done do go ing es ne un in re con quest Latin Root quaerere ‘ask, seek, gain’ s ing ed ion able s ing Mean? Built? Relatives? Pronunciation?

Index Thank You!

Index Thank You! All of these resources that support structured word inquiry learning/instruction can be found through these links.

Index

Index spelling out word structure

Index spelling out word structure

Index spelling out word structure

Index spelling out word structure do + es → does do + ing → doing go + es → goes go + ne → gone quest + ion → question con + quest + s → conquests act + ion → action invent + ion → invention locate + ion → location protect + ion vacate + ion → vacation complete + ion → comletion relate + ion → relation