Syntactic Change 1. Modern English is an SVO(Subject-Verb Object) language. The syntactic rules permit less variation in word order. In Modern English, negation is expressed by adding not or do not. We may also express negation by adding words like never or no: I am going  I am not going I went  I did not go I go to school  I never go to school. I want food.  I don’t want any food; I want no food.

2. contraction rules: do not  don’t will not  won’t ME : the negative element occurs at the end of the word because “not” is put after the auxiliary OE : the negative element occurs at the beginning of the contraction because it preceded the auxiliary in sentences.

3. “comparative” and “superlative” constructions: ME : We form the comparative by adding - er to the adjective or by inserting more before it, the superlative is formed by adding – est or by inserting most. OE : Double comparatives and double superlatives occur, which today are ungrammatical : more gladder, more lover, most royallest.

Lexical Change Lexical changes include: (1) the addition of new words (2) changes in the meanings of words (3) the loss of words

1. New Words Methods to form new words: (a) Compounding: the recombining of old words to form new ones with new meanings. ex. bigmouth, chickenhearted, egghead … etc. (b) Derivational processes ex. Uglify  uglification finalize  finalization (c) Other methods: word coinage, deriving words from names, blends … etc.

2. Borrowings Borrowing from other language is another important source of new words. It occurs when one language takes a word or morpheme from another language and adds it to the lexicon. (a) Two divisions: (i) native words (ii) nonnative words (loan words)

(b) Ways: (i) directly ex. Feast (ii) indirectly ex. Algebra (c) Introduce what languages did English borrow from ? Similarly, other languages borrow words. e.x. Japanese from Chinese and European words (esp. American English)

3.  Loss of Words A word is lost through inattention: nobody thinks of it; nobody uses it; and it fades out of the language.

4. Semantic Change (a) Broadening: become widen and general ex. Holiday, picture (b) Narrowing: become specific ex. Meat, deer (c) Meaning shifts ex. Bead, silly

Linguistic classification The following slides are tackling very significant questions: How are languages classified and? How are family trees established?

Language and Language Families World Languages-- Today there are approximately 6,000 languages spoken around the world. We do not know for certain if all of these derive originally from one common ancestor or parent language.

Language Origins Monogenetic Theories – Language origins in ONE common source, a Proto-Language. Garden of Eden– Common Source Tower of Babel—Language diversity as punishment.

Language Origins Multi-Source Theories– Several Proto-Languages emerge in different locations around the world, either around the same time or at different times.

Language Families We do know that many languages are related to each other. We call these groups of languages that have a common ancestor Language Families. English is part of the Indo-European Language Family.

Discovery of Language Families Although we don't have any evidence of the original parent language (the culture that spoke it did not possess writing), we call the original language Proto-Indo-European.

An Englishman, Sir William Jones (1786) was the first to notice that some languages were related to each other by comparing words in Sanskrit (a very ancient I-E language) with words in Greek, Latin and English.

Comparative Linguistics The study of the relationships between different languages, often with the goal of reconstructing or identifying the parent language.

Indo-European There are 10 major groups within the Indo-European Family of Languages. 1. Germanic (English is part of this group or sub-family). 2. Italic– This includes the Romance (Roman) languages of Latin (parent), French, Spanish, and Portugese.

I-E Language Groups (10) 3. Celtic—This was one of the earliest and most wide-spread of the IE languages throughout Europe. Its descendants include Irish Gaelic, Scots Gaelic, Breton, and Welsh. 4. Hellenic—The languages and dialects of Greece, including Attic-Ionic (Athens) from with Modern Greek derives.

IE Language Groups (10) 5. Balto-Slavic– This includes most of the major languages of Eastern Europe, including Polish and Russian. 6. Albanian 7. Armenian

IE Language Groups (10) 8. Indo-Iranian: Some scholars divide this into two separate groups. A. From this group we get most of the major languages spoken in India, inluding Hindi and Urdu. Sanskrit is the most ancient written form of IE (written Hindu)

IE Language Groups (10) 8.B– We also get many of the most ancient languages spoken in Iran, including Persian. 9. Anatolian—This is an ancient language group. The most well-known language in this group is Hittite, a language documented in the Old Testament.

IE Language Groups (10) Tocharian– An isolated language (no longer spoken) discovered from fragments of texts in Western China.

Language Families (Two Models) Family Tree Model This model is a model of language change described by an analogy with the concept of family tree. In this scientific metaphor, the family members are languages, the family is a language family and the birth kinships of people are genetic relationships between languages. A language can therefore be a parent or mother language or a daughter language (fathers and sons are not in the metaphor). Languages can have lines of descent, can be cognate and can be "related."

Wave Model This is a model of language change in which a new language feature (innovation) or a new combination of language features spreads from a central region of origin in continuously weakening concentric circles, similar to the waves created when a stone is thrown into a body of water. The theory was intended as a substitute for the tree model, which did not seem to be able to explain the existence of some characters, especially in the Germanic languages, Helpful because it shows more complicated inter-relationships among languages, how they influence each other over time.

Proto Indo-European Major immigration probably began in 3rd or 4th millennium BCE. Location was probably in Northern Central Europe (Southern Russia). Origins were perhaps among the Kurgans who lived somewhere north of the Caspian Sea.

Characteristics Cognates-- I-E languages have similar word forms: Numbers-- Body parts-- heart, head, foot. Natural phenomena-- star, snow, sun, moon. Plant/animal names-- beech, bear, corn, wolf. Cultural terms-- yoke, mead, weave, sew.

Characteristics Highly inflected language– Inflections on the end of words were used to indicate such grammatical functions as case, number tense, person, and mood. The best examples of this are Sanskrit, Greek, and Classical Latin.