Psychology Studying the mind of the individual Aim: How does understanding the individual contribute to our study of Forces That Influences Social Change?

Early Ideas about the Mind  4 th century BCE—Although Greek philosophers such as Aristotle believed that the mind is in the heart, Hippocrates describes the brain as the location of the mind;  2 nd century ACE—influential Roman physician Galen supports Hippocrates’ view;

Early Ideas  1640’s French Philosopher Rene Descartes proposes a dualistic theory of the mind and body with the non-physical soul located in the brain’s pineal gland;

Modern views of the mind cont’d  1800’s—Phrenology—physiologist Franz Joseph Gall argues that personality traits and mental abilities are housed in distinct areas of the brain, and can be assessed by measuring the external dimensions of the skull;

Modern Views of the Mind  1879—Wilhelm Wundt sets up the first psychological laboratory and starts to measure behaviour. His first methods involve asking people to reflect on their mental experiences;  Wundt is the founder of Structuralism— conscious behaviour could be studied when it is broken down into its elements.

Modern Views of the Mind  1890’s—Functionalism– William James argued that mental characteristics have developed to allow people to survive; he based his findings on Darwin’s theory of natural selection which explains behaviour in terms of biological function. According to functionalists, the human mind has developed problem solving skills in order to ensure survival;

Modern Views of the Mind  1900—Sigmund Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams– he introduced the idea of the unconscious and the role it plays in our everyday mental life;  1912– Gestalt Psychology—Max Wertheimer proposes that perception is a subjective experience that cannot be understood by looking into its constituent parts;

Modern views of Psychology  1925—Behaviourism—John Watson and later B.F. Skinner argue that all behaviours can be understood as a result of learning, and that to predict behaviour one has to look at environmental forces;  1950’—Cognitive Psychology—focuses on the mental processes (Intelligence tests);

Modern Psychology  1960’s—Advances in drug treatment trials support theories of a biological basis for many types of mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia;  1990’s—A number of fields including neuroscience, cognitive psychology, computer science and neurology forge the field of neuroscience  Into the 21 st century—Genetics—the Human Genome;

Who are Psychologists?  They study how and why humans act the ways they do  Instead of studying how humans function in cultures or societies, psychologists focus on the individual, and the personal and unique experiences that influence how the individual acts and thinks

Types of Psychology Experimental Psychology  The branch of the discipline that sets up experiments to see how individuals act in particular situations  Question - Would you help a complete stranger that was being threatened with violence from another person?

Case Study: “When Bystanders Join In”  Pg. 16. Questions 1 &2

The Case of Kitty Genovese  The Case of Kitty Genovese - Kitty was murdered on the street outside her New York City apartment after loud shouting was heard - 38 people witnessed the murder but did nothing to stop it  Psychologists have long been interested in our unwillingness to get involved in uncomfortable situations even if someone’s personal safety is at risk  People have a tendency see themselves as bystanders in such situations rather than as ACTORS  ACTORS are people who become active participants in a situation

Clinical Psychology  CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY is the branch of the discipline that develops programs for treating individuals suffering from mental illnesses and behavioral disorders  E.g. Psychologists treat dangerous offenders in federal prisons in an attempt to prevent them from re-offending on release

Psychological Schools of Thought Like the other social sciences, psychology has been divided into a number of schools of thought  Psychoanalytic Theory  Behaviouralism  Learning Theory

Psychoanalytic Theory  The mind is divided into two parts: the conscious and the unconscious  We are aware of our conscious but not aware of our unconscious  According to psychologists, our unconscious mind has more influence than our conscious mind on our personalities and our behavior

 Childhood experiences are stored in unconscious mind  Live with frustration = neuroses & abnormal behaviour  Criminal behaviour stems from frustration in childhood  Dream analysis & hypnosis to unlock frustration in childhood  Basis of clinical psychology

The Unconscious Mind The Unconscious mind is divided into three parts: 1. Id – which encourages us to seek physical satisfaction 2. Superego – prompts us to do the moral thing, not the one that feels best 3. Ego – the referee between the two and deals with external reality, this is our most conscious self

The Central Approach to Psychoanalytical Theory  Is that the unconscious mind can be unlocked through Dream Analysis and Hypnosis  Criticisms of this approach - problems can arise from bringing up repressed memories, raises questions as to creating false memories.

Sigmund Freud The founder of psychoanalytic theory The founder of psychoanalytic theory He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our unconscious mind He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our unconscious mind While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on the way we function While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on the way we function

Famous Practitioner – Sigmund Freud Criticisms: Freud felt sexual satisfaction key element of personality. Alfred Adler & Carl Jung feel it is only one factor.Freud felt sexual satisfaction key element of personality. Alfred Adler & Carl Jung feel it is only one factor.

Alfred Adler ( )  Adler - believed that difficulties people encounter in gaining self- esteem and recognition, if not overcome by the normal means lead to compensatory behavior and resultant personality disorders which are now widely referred to as an inferiority complex.

Carl Jung ( )  Responsible for the identification of the Extroverted (outward- looking) and Introverted (inward-looking) personality types.  Worked closely with Freud but split later in their careers  The other aspect of Jung's work which has been very influential is his approach to the analysis of dreams.

Behavioralism  Behaviorists believe that psychologists can predict and control or modify human behavior by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place  Behaviorists placed particular stress on the early childhood years, and the rules or practices parents use to raise their children.  They believe these methods have a huge influence on the character of individuals even into adulthood.  Criticisms include: It is difficult to substantiate results, ignores the influence of heredity.

Famous Practitioners- John B. Watson Benjamin Spock Criticisms:  Difficult to substantiate either way of raising children  Individuality means each child must be raised uniquely  Ignored heredity

Charles B. Watson ( )  The founder of behaviouralism  He used animal experiments to determine whether strict or flexible learning patterns are more effective  He believed children should be brought up using strictly scheduled, rules-based models.

Benjamin Spock ( )  He believed that a permissive approach to child rearing, rather than a strict one, would result in successful, well- adjusted adults.  He encouraged parents to be loving, flexible and supportive

Learning Theory  Learning Theorists agree that humans are born with little instinct but much learning potential  They believe that most human behavior is learned, especially in child and youth.  By controlling the way in which humans learn behavior, society can have a great influence on their ultimate personalities.  Criticisms include: Treats people like robots – assumes we behave the same way given identical rewards and/or punishments.

 Wide area of study  Humans born with little instinct, but much learning potential  Most behaviour is learned  Animals used to assess stimulus-response  Good parenting = good kids  Bandura added modeling / observation to behaviour learning

Famous Practitioners:Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura Criticisms:  Can't summarize it neatly  Is learning one of a few elements or the interplay of many?

Ivan Pavlov ( )  Pavlov’s experiments with dogs showed that it was possible to get a dog to associate the sound of a bell with the imminent arrival of food  At the sound of a bell, the dog would salivate in anticipation

B.F. Skinner ( )  Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to peck at a particular colored disk to get food rewards  Rats received food rewards for pressing a bar in a complicated sequence leading many theorists to believe that learning was a STIMULUS-RESPONSE effect  He believed that if the subject is correctly stimulated it will give the appropriate response

Alfred Bandura (Born in 1925)  Bandura concluded that learning is largely a modeling experience  When humans observe behavior – either acceptable or unacceptable – they are more likely to practice it  Question - What does this mean to us?

Featured Psychologist Basic Work Similarities & Differences B.F. Skinner American behavioural Psychologist Operant conditioning Behaviours increase if rewarded and decrease if punished Focus on individuals Mechanistic evaluation of human actions based on reactions of others and self Carl Jung American psychologist Personal collective unconscious Can only treat if we understand the way the person’s personality has been formed (typology) Focus on individuals Concept of collective unconscious affecting personality development Abraham Maslow American psychologist Hierarchy of human needs Lower needs must be met before we can meet higher needs, with self-actualization as a distant goal Focus on individuals Ideas of basic human needs being met Marion Woodman Canadian Jungian Analyst Patriarchy is outdated We need to be free ourselves from patriarchy, stop placing science above the spiritual, and take a more holistic approach to life. Focus on individual Concerned with how patriarchal ideas have shaped our personality.